theories of under-consumption
Language Reference library
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age
...D. , ‘Literacy in Context: Meaning and Measurement in Early Modern England’, in J. Brewer & R. Porter , eds., Consumption and the World of Goods , London, 1993; Crowley, T. , Language in History: Theories and Texts , London, 1996; Leonard, S. A. , The Doctrine of Correctness in English Usage, 1700–1800 , New York, 1962; Simpson, D. , The Politics of American English, 1776–1850 , New York & Oxford, 1986; Smith, O. , The Politics of Language 1791–1819 , Oxford, 1984; Vincent, D. , Literacy and Popular Culture: England 1750–1914 , Cambridge,...
Central Government, Courts, and Taxation Quick reference
R. W. Hoyle
The Oxford Companion to Local and Family History (2 ed.)
...personalty; the rental value of land; income; and the consumption of goods or services. Of these, taxes on the value of land are the easiest to administer, land being hard to conceal, while taxes on income or consumption require complex administrative organizations. Much ingenuity has gone into the devising of taxation systems, but most may be classified according to a series of simple dichotomies. Taxes may be either direct (levied on individuals) or indirect (customs or excise levied on consumption). They may be progressive or regressive according to...
Sensibility Reference library
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age
...form of production and consumption. Women of the lower and middle classes joined increasingly in denunciations of male recreations, particularly drink, making it clear that booze, betting, paying for sex, and other forms of prodigal spending (and rakes were representative on this score, too) could be a prime absorber of their own and their children's prospects. Women's decisive part in consumer spending in the interests of improved domesticity and, eventually, of more sympathetic child-rearing practices enhanced their roles. Conversely, men of this same...
Political Economy Reference library
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age
...the basis of Smith's more straightforward case for free trade. Ricardo 's Principles of Political Economy , first published in 1817 , was an elaboration of a deductive model of growth and the distribution of its results between rent, profits, and wages that Ricardo had originally formulated as part of his case for the gradual withdrawal of agricultural protection in the corn law debates of 1814–15 . It embodied a theory of rent derived from the law of diminishing returns, but in contrast with Malthus's more harmonistic formulation of this theory it...
Viewing Reference library
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age
...arena of promotion and consumption was played out in the public sphere of the gallery [ see *consumerism, 19 ]. The difficulties experienced by the first art societies in determining the tone and organization of their exhibitions, and regulating their enthusiastic viewers, were practical manifestations of their need to revise fundamental notions of the place and function of art in Britain. The Society of Artists went through an administrative mitosis in 1768 , with one faction staying on to become the Incorporated Society of Artists and a group of...
15 Children’s Books Reference library
Andrea Immel
The Oxford Companion to the Book
...the children’s book 1 Introduction The children’s book—a work conceived, produced, and marketed for the consumption of a young audience—appeared relatively late in the history of the western European printed book. Although its development is thought to be symptomatic of the so-called discovery of childhood, the emergence of the children’s book after the invention of printing in the late 15 th century cannot be understood without reference to the history of European education. Improvements in children’s reading materials are sparked by educational reforms and...
Prose Reference library
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age
... stood a tendentious body of philosophical and historical arguments [ see *history, 38 ]. Most readers would have encountered this, if at all, only in the writings of David *Hume , William *Robertson , or Adam *Smith ; that is, in Scottish philosophical history, with its ‘inevitable stages’ theory of the development of British modernity, and in the new ‘science’ of political economy with its rationalizing of commercial society. The Edinburgh reviewers' aim was as much to roll back the political and intellectual influence of the 1790s London reviewing...
24 The History of the Book in Germany Reference library
John L. Flood
The Oxford Companion to the Book
...was the emergence of the novel. Earlier, novels had been of a learned character, intended not for popular consumption but rather for aristocratic or scholarly readers well acquainted with the events and personalities of ancient and contemporary history, classical mythology, and the works of ancient philosophers and poets. A good example is Die Römische Octavia by Anton Ulrich , duke of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel ( 1633–1714 ). Such novels primarily reflected the absolutist court ideal, and served as vehicles for moral or political ideas of the kind young...
Land Reference library
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age
...Forest to submit to the yoke of improvement.’ And beyond the borders of the islands of Britain, the colonial production of commodities significantly affected the lives of agricultural workers. The example of the consumption and production of sugar epitomizes an economy which constructs a global economic ecology. The sugar produced by slave and indentured labour in the British-controlled colonies of the West Indies became a part of the staple diet of the English labouring class, who were now attracted to the stimulants of tea and coffee with sugar, in part...
Domesticity Reference library
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age
...instruments of domestic *music . Here domesticity is linked to consumer desire, emphasizing the domestic interior as a site of conspicuous cultural and material consumption [ see *consumerism, 19 ]. A growing fascination with all aspects of the home—including, for example, how many rooms were appropriate for how many children, for their physical and mental well-being—underpinned the idea of the family as a close- knit cell and self-contained unit. The family became increasingly enclosed—physically and conceptually—within the four walls of the nuclear...
Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel Reference library
Lawrence E. Stager
Oxford History of the Biblical World
...be related to the same confederacy of Sea Peoples, or Mycenaean Greeks, who invaded the coastlands and the island of Alashiya (Cyprus) around 1185–1175. Correspondence between the king of Cyprus and the king of Ugarit can be correlated with the archaeology of destruction to provide vivid details of the Sea Peoples' onslaught. The capital of a Syrian coastal kingdom under the suzerainty of the Hittites, Ugarit had over 150 villages in its hinterland and a population of 25,000, nearly the same as that of Philistia during stage 1. Its king also...
Humanity and Islam Reference library
‘Ali Shari‘ati
Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook
...is true of other creatures, including bashar . A science fiction writer has written about this type of human in the account of a scientist from earth who went to Mars: While walking on the streets of Mars, the scientist found out that there was a conference in one of the universities about a Martian scientist who had traveled to earth. He attended the conference. The Martian scientist went behind the lectern and said: “The theory about life on earth was confirmed. The latest findings show that there is life, one of which is...
Leviticus Reference library
Lester L. Grabbe and Lester L. Grabbe
The Oxford Bible Commentary
...about the types of animal considered fit for consumption and how they were to be prepared. Lev 11 (paralleled by Deut 14 ) lists the various animals available for food and those to be avoided. There are some difficulties here because it is not always clear which animals were being referred to. The standard treatment of this chapter is now the study by Houston ( 1993 ) . He argues that the animals allowed or forbidden under Israelite law were generally those similarly permitted or prohibited in the surrounding cultures. The laws of the Pentateuch thus...
Judith Reference library
Amy-Jill Levine and Amy-Jill Levine
The Oxford Bible Commentary
...disposing of the victim's parts, and retains a portion for communal (visual) consumption ( see 16:18–20 ). Regarding the latter, the connection of the story of Judith to Gen 34 already provides a reference to genital wounding, and modern commentators read the symbolic value of Judith's action by connecting decapitation to castration ( Dundes 1974 ; Levine 1992 ). Quickly leaving the tent, Judith hands Holofernes' head to her waiting servant, who puts it in the food sack. Then the women leave, as they had done the previous nights, ‘to pray’. The female...
Israel among the Nations: The Persian Period Reference library
Mary Joan Winn Leith
Oxford History of the Biblical World
...return of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia to normal, the cylinder never calls for a general release of deportees or a universal restoration of centers of worship that had suffered at Babylonian hands. Furthermore, the term restore is ambiguous; we do not know how much religious innovating Nabonidus actually did that needed undoing, and there is no evidence for any rebuilding or repair of Mesopotamian temples during the reign of Cyrus. Life in Babylonia proceeded much as before. The Cyrus Cylinder was meant for Babylonian consumption, to...
A Land Divided: Judah and Israel from the Death of Solomon to the Fall of Samaria Reference library
Edward F. Campbell Jr.
Oxford History of the Biblical World
...Coote has proposed instead that E is a statement of Jeroboam's political ideology, composed under the aegis of his court and consisting of an augmentation of J, turning it toward support for the northern style of monarchy. Coote's view has the virtue of accounting for E's qualified approval of a certain governance style, and it gives E a time, a place, and a purpose. But the more widely held alternative view—that E came from prophetic circles in the north and dates from the ninth century after some experience of monarchy—can still be defended. ...
1 Corinthians Reference library
John Barclay and John Barclay
The Oxford Bible Commentary
...the Corinthian letter. At first sight, the content of ch. 9 appears out of place in this section. However, as we shall see, it actually fits perfectly as an illustration of what Paul requires of the ‘people of knowledge’: that they renounce their ‘rights’ for the sake of others. It has often been noted that Paul's softer tone on the consumption of sacrificial food in 8:1–13 and 10:23–11:1 appears inconsistent with his hard-line attitude to idolatry in 10:1–22 ; some have even suspected the combination of two or more letters at this point. There is indeed a...
Deuteronomy Reference library
Christoph Bultmann and Christoph Bultmann
The Oxford Bible Commentary
...is the liberal consumption of portions of the new yield, and therefore it is supposed to include all the people within the rural community. The appeal to generosity is underlined by v. 12 in a way similar to 15:15 . According to the Deuteronomic law, ‘rejoicing’ in YHWH's presence is the primary raison d᾽être of the harvest festivals ( vv. 11, 14–15; cf. 12:18, see Braulik 1970 ), which, in pre-Deuteronomic times, may have had numerous and confusing mythological aspects, cf. Hos 2:2–15 (MT 4–17). ( 16:13–15 ) The Feast of Booths In Ex 23:16 b ,...
Genesis Reference library
R. N. Whybray and R. N. Whybray
The Oxford Bible Commentary
...theories that have been proposed has yet found general acceptance. One thorough investigation of the composition of the patriarchal stories ( Blum 1984 ), which envisages a gradual process of composition in which the traditions about each of the patriarchs were gradually and independently built up before their combination into larger complexes, has considerable plausibility; on the other hand, the notion of a fragment hypothesis according to which there was no lengthy process of growth but a single act of composition in which a mass of material was...
