Bradford Hill criteria Quick reference
A Dictionary of Dentistry (2 ed.)
...Bradford Hill criteria [ A. B. Hill ( 1897–1991 ), British medical statistician] A set of nine criteria used to determine the strength of an association between a disease and its supposed causative agent. They form the basis of modern medical and dental epidemiological research. The nine Bradford Hill criteria Criterion Explanation Strength of association The stronger the association, the more likely it is that the relation is causal. Temporal relationship Exposure always precedes the outcome. Consistency The association is consistent...
Bradford Hill criteria
Hill's criteria
Hill's criteria Quick reference
A Dictionary of Public Health (2 ed.)
...Hill's criteria ( Hill’s considerations for causation ) A series of properties that causal relations may satisfy, proposed by Austin Bradford Hill ( 1897–1991 ) and further elaborated by Mervyn Susser and others. Sometimes referred to as “Hill’s criteria” (for causal inference, of causality), even though Hill did not use “criteria” (which might suggest each is necessary); instead, Hill described them as “considerations” or “viewpoints,” stating that none was necessary (although the consensus is that temporality is indeed necessary). They are: Strength :...
Hill’s Considerations For Causation Quick reference
A Dictionary of Epidemiology (6 ed.)
...Hill’s Considerations For Causation A series of theoretical and empirical properties that causal relations may or may not satisfy, proposed by Austin Bradford Hill ( 1897–1991 ) 533 and further elaborated by Mervyn Susser 207 and others. 1 , 2 , 6 , 25 , 39 , 42 , 69 , 206 , 208 , 270 Sometimes referred to as “Hill’s criteria” (for causal inference, of causality), even though Hill did not use “criteria” (which might suggest each is necessary); instead, Hill described them as “considerations” or “viewpoints,” stating that none was...
statistics Reference library
Douglas G. Altman
The Oxford Companion to Medicine (3 ed.)
...Here too Bradford Hill was very influential. He developed criteria for considering whether an observed association may reasonably be thought to indicate a causal relationship. With Richard Doll he carried out a series of studies which helped to demonstrate, together with studies elsewhere, that smoking was a serious health hazard, especially in relation to the development of lung cancer. Their prospective study of British doctors was especially important, as most previous studies had been retrospective (and as a consequence less reliable). Hill and Doll...
Metaphor Reference library
Encyclopedia of Rhetoric
...“genetic code,” which describes a biological process in terms of information theory, for instance, is a catachrēsis . It is a heuristic tool, because it allows for analogical extensions in expressions like genetic “message,” “transcription,” or “translation” ( Halloran and Bradford , 1984 , p. 188). Didactic discourse, on the other hand, employs illustrative metaphors in the interests of perspicuity. [ See also Figures of speech ; Style ; and Tacit dimension, the .] BIBLIOGRAPHY Black, Max . Models and Metaphors . Ithaca, N.Y., 1962. Blumenberg, Hans...
Literature Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...that communication is impossible without artifice, yet there is a difference between the colloquial simile that someone is ‘as bold as brass’ and T. S. Eliot ’s simile for the young man in The Waste Land ( 1922 ): ‘One of the low on whom assurance sits / As a silk hat on a Bradford millionaire.’ The difference lies not only in the originality and unexpected juxtaposition but in the appropriateness of image to context, in the austere tone of the whole poem, in the evocation of a snobbish post- 1918 attitude to men who had become rich through government...
sports buildings Reference library
Geraint John
The Oxford Companion to Architecture
...Archibald Leitch. However, the stadiums of today were influenced by the crowd problems of the last part of the 20th century. A series of disasters, at the Heysel Stadium in Belgium ( 1985 ), a fatal fire at Bradford ( 1985 ), and Hillsborough, Sheffield ( 1989 ), accompanied by a climate of crowd violence, caused the authorities to look at the design criteria for safety. All major stadia became all seated. At the same time, spectators were looking for rising standards of comfort and amenity in comparison with their predecessors. Not only does the modern stadium...
Adding Biodiversity to Agricultural Landscapes Through Ecology and Biotechnology Reference library
David Still
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Agriculture and the Environment
...the product. Worldwide, agencies that oversee the safety of GE crops regulate the process, not the product, bypassing consumers to make market choices and pre-empting the development of new products, especially non-commodity specialty crops ( Bradford, Van Deynze, Gutterson, Parrott, & Strauss, 2005 ; Miller & Bradford, 2010 ). While some may be alarmed that science has developed the ability to bioengineer crop plants, humans, as engineers, have changed the natural world to an extent that every ecosystem on Earth has been altered. The degradation of...
History of Evidence-Based Practice Reference library
Scott O. Lilienfeld and Candice Basterfield
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of Modern Psychology
...were blindfolded and asked which cigarette brand they preferred ( Meldrum, 2000 ). A second randomized blinded controlled trial was carried out by the MRC to evaluate streptomycin for treating pulmonary tuberculosis. The British statistician and epidemiologist Austin Bradford Hill ( 1897–1991 ) is credited with designing the trial. He replaced alternation with randomization to better disguise the allocation schedule from patients and experimenters. Pulmonary tuberculosis patients were assigned to the streptomycin treatment group and a no-treatment...
Literature Reference library
Everett Emerson, Gary Ashwill, Gordon Hutner, Thomas H. Schaub, and Erin A. Smith
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History
...belles lettres. The writers of colonial America generally identified as most important to literature are William Bradford (1590–1657), Anne Bradstreet, Edward Taylor (c. 1644–1729), William Byrd II, Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, and J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, with others placed at a somewhat lower level: Cotton Mather, the African American poet Phillis Wheatley, and Captain John Smith, who is now recognized as a credible writer. Bradford's well-crafted history of the Plymouth colony (written c. 1630–1650) enjoys a preeminent place because of its...
Housing Policy across the United States Reference library
Kristin M. Szylvian
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...J. P. Sandal , and Katherine Solomonson , eds. Making Suburbia: New Histories of Everyday America . Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2015. Hayden, Dolores . Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth . New York: Pantheon Books, 2003. Hunt, D. Bradford . Blueprint for Disaster: The Unraveling of Chicago Public Housing . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009. Immergluck, Daniel . Foreclosed: High-Risk Lending, Deregulation, and the Undermining of America’s Home Mortgage Market . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009...
Conflicting Information and Message Competition in Health and Risk Messaging Reference library
Rebekah H. Nagler and Susan M. LoRusso
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Health and Risk Message Design and Processing
...findings. Specifically, the medical community bases its judgments on the “totality of the data” available across study designs ( Taubes, 2007 , para. 18). Sir Austin Bradford Hill ( Hill, 1971 ) and the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force ( USPSTF, 1989 ), among others, have established criteria for causal inference in epidemiology. Some epidemiologists have argued that applying these criteria to specific nutritional epidemiologic questions, for example, would help to clarify findings that seem contradictory ( Kushi, 1999 ). While researchers and clinicians...
Legislation Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History
...been transferred to the kings, who ruled through directives ( diagrammata ) that often took the form of a letter to the cities. The text of such a letter would be ratified by the assembly of the citizenry and inscribed in stone as law (these texts have been collected by Bradford Welles ). In addition to general diagrammata , a king could also issue a specific decree in the form of a prostagma . Numerous examples from Ptolemaic times have been preserved in Egyptian papyri (and collected by Marie-Thérèse Lenger ). Even in their native Greece, the...
Crop Rotations, Fallowing, and Associated Environmental Benefits Reference library
Faisal Nadeem, Ahmad Nawaz, and Muhammad Farooq
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Agriculture and the Environment
...soil quality and reduces soil erosion ( Nielsen & Calderon, 2011 ). Crop residue cover in fallow land serves as an organic mulch that increases the moisture contents in soil and reduces evaporation losses and provides shelter for soil against wind and water erosion ( Smart & Bradford, 1999 ; Zribi, Aragüés, Medina, & Faci, 2015 ). Fallow fields covered with residue (80%–90%) protects soil from erosion ( Kline, 2000 ) by acting as barrier against wind and high-intensity rainfall, thus increasing water infiltration, reducing soil evaporation losses (...
Organization Development Reference library
W. Warner Burke
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Industrial, Work, and Organizational Psychology
...change does not always involve OD. Three criteria determine whether an organizational change can be considered an effective OD intervention. If the intervention (a) responds to the actual needs for change as experienced by organizational members, (b) involves organizational members in the planning and implementing of the changes, and (c) leads to a change in the organization’s culture, then the change is considered effective ( Burke & Noumair, 2015 ). Not everyone in the field agrees with these criteria, particularly the third one—cultural change....
Peace Research Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...and environmental justice. Department for Peace Studies, University of Bradford, UK The Department of Peace Studies at the University of Bradford is one of the leading institutions in the field. The department was established in 1973 , and since then its international reputation has managed to attract on average 400 students from around the world. The department has a comprehensive research mandate with the following centers: the Africa Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies; the Bradford Disarmament Research Centre; the Centre for Conflict Resolution; the...
Gandhi Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...and Power: Propaganda and the Press in the Indian Nationalist Struggle, 1920–1947 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Overy, Bob . Gandhi as a Political Organiser, In Challenge to Nonviolence, Issues in Peace Research , edited by Michael Randle. Bradford : University of Bradford, Department of Peace Studies, 2002. Parekh, Bikhu . Gandhi’s Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination . South Bend, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1989. Parekh, Bikhu . Gandhi: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Powers,...
Literature Reference library
Encyclopedia of Aesthetics
...are questions such as the following: What is the nature of the literary work? How can one identify/define a literary work? What is the mode of apprehension through which the literary work is grasped? What are the criteria for validity in interpretation? What is the nature of the value judgments passed on literary works and what are the criteria for valid value judgements? Moreover, as a branch of philosophy, literary theory would have at its disposal the insights reached and the arguments developed in other areas of philosophy—in metaphysics, epistemology,...
