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Archaeological Evidence of War in Prehistory
Icons of War and Peace
Maps, Navigational Charts, and Itineraries Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology
...and towns between northern Germany and Rome compiled by Erhard Etzlaub and printed in 1500 (and again in 1501 and 1515 ). [ See also Navigational Technology .] Bibliography Harley, J. B. , and David Woodward , eds. The History of Cartography . Vol. 1, Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Harvey, Paul D. A. , ed. The Hereford World Map: Medieval World Maps and Their Context . London: British Library, 2006. Simek, Rudolf . Heaven and Earth in the Middle Ages: The...
shields Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...The most common and simple defensive armament carried by soldiers from prehistory to the end of the Middle Ages was the shield. Prehistoric cave paintings portray wooden shields carried in the hands of hunters as a means to ward off attacks. Bronze Age shields were stronger and larger. The Greek hoplite was named after his shield, the hoplon . The hoplon was wooden, rounded, and concave, although its size could vary depending on the length and strength of the bearer's arm, and by the 5th century bc a solid, thin bronze sheet covered it. The Greek...
Dover Castle Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology
...Castle Although the spur of high ground on the eastern side of Dover town bears evidence of a prehistoric fort, a Roman lighthouse, and a Saxon church, implying occupation from an early date, not until after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 was the great castle visible today erected. After the battle of Hastings, William I rewarded Bishop Odo of Bayeux, who had accompanied him from Normandy, with charge of Dover castle. There is no documentary evidence about the nature of the existing defenses or what Odo may have done on the site, as pipe rolls,...
Nuclear Winter Reference library
The Oxford Companion to American Military History
...of the apocalyptic visions presented: that a major nuclear exchange would produce “the greatest biological and physical disruption of the planet in its last 65 million years” (a period that included the four great ice ages) and that the number of survivors would be reduced to prehistoric levels (presumably a fraction of 1% of those now alive). All of this was buttressed by claims that the TTAPS results were insensitive to wide variations in assumptions about parameters used in modeling. In fact, the results were anything but robust, as subsequent studies would...
bow Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...( see also archers ). From prehistoric times until its replacement by early firearms during the 16th century, the bow remained the principal hand-held missile weapon in warfare. Bows fell into three main types: the composite bow, the crossbow, and the longbow. Rightly regarded as one of early man's great technical developments, the composite bow was used by the armies of both classical Greece and Rome and their enemies such as the Scythians , Persians, and Parthians. It usually consisted of a wooden core onto which thin layers of horn were glued to the...
Transportation Reference library
The Oxford Companion to American Military History
...men and materiel arrive when and where needed; tracking the progress of movement; and regulating the frequency, speed, and density of movement in order to avoid congestion at any point along the route. Human and animal transport have been used to move military forces since prehistoric times. Well into the twentieth century, most armies relied almost entirely upon human and animal bearers. Even today in more primitive areas, porters and pack animals are still the most effective means of moving military supplies. Able to operate under most weather conditions...
Insignia Reference library
The Oxford Companion to American Military History
.... Special identification for soldiers and their instruments of war predates recorded history, going back to specially carved prehistoric clubs, and including such well‐known examples as Egyptian chariots, Israelite tribal symbols, Roman standards, Zulu regalia, and American Indian warpaint. Anthropologists and psychologists have suggested a warrior's need to identify with a proud unit, or to personalize, trust, and feel affection for those implements that deliver the warrior from or to destruction. During the Crusades, at the siege of Antioch in 1097 ,...
fortification and siegecraft Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...comprising three rings of walled enclosures, in between which were to be found fiendish spiked obstacles that resembled the later chevaux-de-frise . Dun Aengus on the Isle of Arran is a prime example of this kind of fort. Indeed, mainland Scotland boasts some very unusual prehistoric fortifications, built like towers without mortar, and known as brochs. These refuges would be built on a peninsula, with access guarded by a series of ditches. But it is to the ancient Near East and the lands of the Bible that we must turn to discover the origins of...
Technology and International Relations Reference library
Sai Felicia Krishna-Hensel
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...propel us toward reexamining the existing assumptions about the international system. Early Background Paleoanthropologists analyzing the earliest evidence of human societies relied heavily on the study of inventions and artifacts in explaining the first human cultures. Prehistoric developments in toolmaking and their use were essential in enabling humankind to reduce the range of limitations and extending the breadth of possibilities. “There can be no question that tools (extra-corporeal limbs, as they have sometimes been termed) constitute the mechanism...
Castles Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology
...three subentries, on castles from 500–1100 , 1150–1350 , and 1350–1500 . See also Crusader Castles . ] 500–1100 A medieval castle was two things: a home and a fortress. In the modern world the word “castle” is used to describe a wide range of defended sites, from prehistoric hillforts to post-medieval artillery fortresses. In a medieval setting, however, it is the private character of castles, as elite defended residences, that distinguishes them from other forms of fortification. Accordingly, the medieval castle is as much defined by its social...
Baltics Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology
...summaries of the topic, including social and organizational aspects. Thus the research on the role of local militias in the crusading armies communicates with the shifting picture of the social order of Baltic peoples at the eve of the Crusades. Until the 1990s, Estonian prehistoric society was mostly considered quite egalitarian. The modern view stresses the significance of social stratification, which made the adaption of Western warfare by natives easy. Hence the militia provided an important and vigorous part of the crusaders’ armies. Worthy of mention...
Historical Sociology Reference library
John M. Hobson, George Lawson, and Justin Rosenberg
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...German social thought ( Shilliam 2009 ), the historical origins of World War I (Rosenberg forthcoming), the nature of relations between sub-Saharan African states and external donor institutions ( Brown 2009 ), and, last but not least, the role of interaction in the (late prehistoric) formation of the first known states ( Rosenberg 2009 ). A second strand of IHS is now emerging that can be primarily identified as “global dialogic,” or non-Eurocentric. Although this approach shares much in common with the theory of uneven and combined development, it begins...
Ecofeminism and Global Environmental Politics Reference library
Juliann Emmons Allison
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...that would be considered culturally feminine – from women’s biological capacity to bear children, to their socialization as caretakers, to their relationship-oriented habits of mind. Such cultural ecofeminists draw on archeological evidence from Neolithic Europe to argue that prehistorical agrarian societies were characteristically peaceful and identified by goddess worship ( Gimbutas 1982 ; see Eller 2001 for a key counterargument). They blame invasion from Eurasian tribes – perhaps in combination with significant population growth, the development of...
Conceptual Debates in Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Migration Reference library
Stephen J. Larin
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...and “Eastern” nationalisms (or, more accurately, “the West” and “the rest” ( Brubaker 2004 :224)) has been much more widely influential. In his well-known book The Idea of Nationalism , first published in 1944 , Kohn argues that national characters “are not determined prehistorically or biologically, nor are they fixed for all time; they are the product of social and intellectual development, of countless gradations of behavior and reaction.” In the Western world (defined as England, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United States and the British...
Diplomacy Reference library
Paul Sharp
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...of diplomacy (for example, envoys with rights and duties, negotiations, and court ceremonial) as it is conventionally understood today. However, these reminders prompt an irresolvable argument about whether or not what we see in these highly mediated accounts of relations in prehistoric and ancient worlds can be properly regarded as diplomatic systems. Perhaps the wisest course of action is to ask what distortions of understanding and errors of interpretation are courted by assigning the term “diplomacy” to these relations, and what distortions and errors are...
The Ethnic, Nationalist, and Religious Roots of Terrorism Reference library
Josephine Squires
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...This supports the strategic model proposed by Pape ( 2005 ) , which assumes that terrorists are motivated by relatively stable aims and that violence will cease when organizational grievances have been satisfied. Douglass and Zulaika ( 2007 ) trace Basque history from prehistoric times to the present and contribute heavily to the understanding of the ETA and Basque terrorism. They point to collective imagination as the crucial element in the survival and success of small militant groups and terrorists and claim that terrorists share a common bond with...
Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Migration in East Asia Reference library
Eunice Y. Kang, Hyung-Gu Lynn, and Apichai W. Shipper
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...a dominant response to the question of Japanese national and cultural identity. Nihonjinron scholars identified the uniqueness of Japanese culture and mentality in its people, culture, way of thinking, social behavior, and language, which were all allegedly derived from a prehistorical world and remained unaltered throughout history, often in contrast to Western cultures. Such works were published predominantly in Japan by Japanese authors such as Aida Yuji , Kunihiro Masao , Masuda Yoshio , but also included non-Japanese like Edwin Reischauer ( 1988 )...
World System History Reference library
Robert A. Denemark
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...1–57. Sherratt, A. (1993b) Core, Periphery and Margin: Perspectives on the Bronze Age. In C. Mathers and S. Stoddart (eds.) Development and Decline in the Mediterranean Bronze Age . Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. Sherratt, A. (1997) Economy and Society in Prehistoric Europe: Changing Perspectives . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Silver, M. (1985) Economic Structures of the Ancient Near East . London: Croom Helm. Smith, J. (2008) Rise of Global Public Opinion. In the UNESCO-sponsored Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)...
