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Stratigraphy Reference library
Encyclopedia of Evolution
...horses. Figure 1. Early Representation of Horse Evolution Emphasizing the Linear Transformation in Form Through Time.The old names of the fossil-bearing beds are shown on the left, in stratigraphic order, demonstrating exactly where this sequence of horse fossils can be found. Courtesy the Library, American Museum of Natural History. Figure 2. Modern Concept of Horse Evolution.Shown are much more complex, bushy, branching pattern as we discover more horse fossils. Donald Prothero. See also Geology ; Paleontology . Berry, W. B. N. Growth of Prehistoric...
Bone Tool Technology in the Stone Age of Africa Reference library
Justin Bradfield
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...changes ( Backwell and d’Errico 2016 ; Lombard 2016 ). Figure 2. Bone points from Middle Stone Ages sites. A , arrowhead from Klasies River Main site (Author); B–D , bone points from Blombos Cave (images provided courtesy of Christopher Henshilwood and Francesco d’Errico); E , arrowhead from Sibudu (image provided courtesy of Lucinda Backwell). The Later Stone Age: Functional Diversity Terrestrial Hunting From the conclusion of the post–Howiesons Poort period, bone tools are again sparsely recorded. Evidence for bone working reappears...
Nomenclature Reference library
Encyclopedia of Evolution
...definition of the apomorphy-based clade is “the clade stemming from the first organism to possess character X synapomorphic with that in B.” The bar marks the origin of character X. The species names and characters referred to in phylogenetic definitions are called specifiers.Courtesy of Harold N. Bryant. Figure 2. The Effect of Changes in Phylogenetic Relationships on the Use of Phylogenetic Definitions.Given a taxon name with the node-based phylogenetic definition “the least inclusive clade that includes B and D,” this name refers to the clade consisting...
Northeastern African Stone Age Reference library
Alice Leplongeon
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...D. Site E71P1A: Halfan core; E–H. Site E71K18: ortogonal core (E), small proximal truncations (F–H); I–K. Site E71K20: opposed platform blade core (I), distal truncation (J), backed artifact (K). Source : Photographs by Alice Leplongeon, taken courtesy of the Belgium Middle Egypt Palaeolithic Project (A, B) and courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum (C–K). Most sites from this period are surface lithic assemblages, and their attribution to LP relies on their lithic characteristics or general geomorphological context. A few stratified sites, however,...
Heritage Management in West Africa Reference library
Caleb Adebayo Folorunso
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...China, Sangiran Early Man Site in Indonesia, and the Sites of Human Evolution at Mount Camel in Israel, which are all World Heritage Sites ( Figures 1 – 4 ). Figure 1. Political map of West Africa. Courtesy of Best Map of.com . Figure 2. Map of Nigeria, showing Iwo Eleru. Courtesy of Harvati et al. (2011) . Figure 3. Iwo Eleru rock shelter. Photograph courtesy of Jacopo Cerasoni, 2019. Figure 4. Tse Dura rock shelter, Benue State Nigeria. Photograph from C. A. Folorunso, 2015. Settlement and Ritual Sites There are several settlement mounds in West Africa...
The Shell Midden Sites of Senegambia Reference library
Alioune Dème and Moustapha Sall
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...bones, wood, and ivory: harpoons (a single row of barbs with pointed ends and lateral biconical perforations); hooks; smoother, polished axes and adzes (made out of manatee bones); punches; and fish scraps (see Figure 4 ). Figure 4. Bone and wooden tools from Khant. Source : Courtesy IFAN. There were also artifacts from the Iron Age. The pottery is dominated by the brown-red colored potsherds that are decorated with cord impressions and shell ( Tympanotonus ) and Blepharis impressions. Subsistence activities were diverse. According to Mbow, between 2,500...
New Replicators, The Reference library
Encyclopedia of Evolution
...RNA viruses and prions. Have any other completely different evolutionary substrates arisen on this planet? The best candidates are the brainchildren, planned or unplanned, of one species: Homo sapiens . Figure 1. The New Replicators. A Simple Taxonomy of the New Replicators.Courtesy of Daniel Dennett. Darwin himself proposed words as an example: “The survival or preservation of certain favoured words in the struggle for existence is natural selection” ( Descent of Man , 1871 , p. 61). Billions of words are uttered (or inscribed) every day, and almost all...
Ostrich Eggshell Beads in Later Stone Age Contexts Reference library
Benjamin Collins
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...breakages are most likely to occur, seem to be during the perforation and when trimming the bead before grinding ( Craig et al. 2020 ). Figure 1. Example of modern OES bead manufacture during an experimental archaeology lecture at the University of Winnipeg in 2018. Images courtesy of the author. Coloration Another facet of bead production is coloration. OES changes color in a generally predictable manner when heated to different temperatures and under different atmospheric conditions ( Collins and Steele 2017 ; Kandel and Conard 2005 ; see Figure 2a...
Southern Africa’s Later Stone Age and Hunter-Gatherer Ethnography Reference library
Tim Forssman
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...southern African LSA rock art ( Pearce 2012 ). Figure 3. A trance dance scene in a rock art panel from Halstone, Maloti-Drakensberg. The dancing sticks, bent-over postures, and elongated limbs are thought to be typical signifiers of dance scenes and shamans. Source : Image courtesy of Sam Challis. The correlation between parietal deposits and ethnography demonstrates spatial and temporal relationships between different Bushman groups. This has been challenged. Some argue that too much emphasis is placed on shamanism or that it is an inappropriate term (cf....
The Stone Age of the Middle Nile Valley Reference library
Elena A. A. Garcea
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...bore traces of phytoliths and starch. Because of the predominance of these tools, 8-B-11 was interpreted as a specialized Sangoan location for the production of quartz core-axes and for retooling those of nonlocal raw materials. Figure 5. Sangoan core-axes from 8-B-11. Source : Courtesy of P. Van Peer. Reproduced from Garcea (2020a , fig. 2.3) with permission by Springer Nature and Copyright Clearance Center. Furthermore, a sandstone slab with a flat surface made by pecking came from the Lower Sangoan level and was used as a grinding stone, a mortar, or an...
Archaeological Adhesives Reference library
Geeske Langejans, Alessandro Aleo, Sebastian Fajardo, and Paul Kozowyk
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Archaeology
...relating to pottery repair, from the La Cajita site in Colombia, dating to about 1230 ce. D , Dorsal and ventral view of a weathered experimental flint tool with ochre stains resulting from the ochre-loaded hafting adhesive ( Kozowyk, van Gijn, and Langejans 2020 ). Photos courtesy of Maria Pina Garaguso ( A ), Paul Kozowyk ( B ), and Alessandro Aleo ( C , D ). A wide range of materials have natural tacky qualities, such as fresh tree resin, but adhesives are also manufactured. Here, we recognize three processes: chemical reaction (e.g., two-component adhesives...
