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Arctic Reference library
Russell A. Potter
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...Kent Kane's fame from participating in two expeditions to search for Franklin ( 1850 , 1851 ), a new national passion was ignited. At the time, many still believed, as had Arctic Expedition. The fate of the Franklin expedition, Illustrated London News , 13 October 1849. Courtesy of Russell A. Potter Barrow, in the notion of an open Polar Sea. Indeed, Kane ( 1820–1857 ) claimed to have discovered it. In 1871 Charles Francis Hall ( 1821–1871 ), a veteran of the Franklin search, headed the first U.S.-sponsored expedition with the Pole as its stated...
Etiquette and Manners Reference library
Cas Wouters
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...into societal or “public” ones. The transition was most dramatic in the American and the French Revolution in the late eighteenth century. The transition from the eighteenth-century “courtesy genre” of manners books to the nineteenth-century “etiquette genre” reflects this change. The new genre presented a blend of aristocratic and bourgeois manners. Etiquette books were directed at sociability in the centers of power and their “good society,” that is, the circles of social acquaintance among people of families who belong to the centers of power. Their...
The Great Depression Reference library
Erik Gellman and Margaret Rung
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...buy the goods being pumped out by American manufacturers. Joined together in a dangerous cycle, overproduction and underconsumption threatened to upend an economy that increasingly demanded consumption. Figure 1. Farm auction in Iowa after a foreclosure between 1930 and 1940. Courtesy Library of Congress, LC-DIG-fsa-8b08252 . In addition, speculative real estate and stock market booms revealed an unregulated economy vulnerable to reckless behavior. Starting in 1926 , a real estate bubble in Florida burst, erasing fortunes and crippling banks. 10 Three years...
Skyscrapers and Tall Buildings Reference library
Elihu Rubin
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...( 1985 ), the insurance company, in Louisville, Kentucky, that featured bold colors and abstracted, playful forms. Figure 8. Transamerica Building, San Francisco, William Pereira, architect, 1972. Courtesy of Library of Congress, LC-DIG-highsm-13780. Figure 9. Pennzoil Place, Houston, Philip Johnson and John Burgee, architects, 1975. Courtesy of Library of Congress, LC-DIG-highsm-11857. Updates on the city-within-a-city concept turned ever more inward and focused on interiorized environments that almost entirely severed a connection to the street...
Company Towns in the United States Reference library
Hardy Green
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...paid identical wages, had identical working hours, and followed similar employment policies. Marketing their popular printed calicoes via the same Boston commission houses, all were hugely profitable. Figure 1. Lowell’s Boott Cotton Mills in the late nineteenth century. Photo courtesy of Center for Lowell History. By 1850 , forty mill buildings lined the river for almost a mile, their mill wheels driven by six miles of canals and a system of gates and flow-measuring devices that regulated the water. A series of belts linked mill wheels to power looms and other...
Holocaust Reference library
Wendy AdelÉ-Marie Maier
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...not want in the end, as a result of exterminating a bacterium, The Holocaust. The SS searches the Jewish department heads of the Brauer armaments factory during the suppression of the Warsaw ghetto uprising, Warsaw, Poland, 1943. National Archives and Records Administration/Courtesy of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum to become infected by this bacterium and die from it. I will never stand by and watch even a small sepsis appear here or gain a hold. Wherever it may form, together we will cauterize it.” His speech revealed how the Nazis took centuries...
Streets, Roads, and Highways in the United States Reference library
Peter Norton
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...of 1785 imposed a grid on the Old Northwest; it later extended into most of the West. The grid established parcel and township borders, and determined the locations of most roads. The diagram shows one township of 36 sections plus adjoining sections in neighboring townships. Courtesy of the US Interior Bureau of Land Management. Yet local and state governments lacked the means to build sufficient roads, leaving an opportunity for entrepreneurs. Chartered turnpikes (toll roads) in Britain and toll bridges in America established the example for later American...
Gambling in Northern US Cities Reference library
Matthew Vaz
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...representative Chinese behavior, declaring that the popular table game fan tan “is their ruling passion. The average Chinamen, the police will tell you, would rather gamble than eat any day.” 25 Figure 1. A depiction of a raid of a Chinese gambling parlor, 1887 . Source : Courtesy of Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-64799. In 1894 the Lexow Committee investigated Chinese gambling in New York. A Chinese gambler named Wong Get told of a neighborhood of four or five hundred residents, which typically swelled to three or four thousand on Sundays, as Chinese from...
Drug Subcultures in the American City Reference library
Chris Elcock
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...In the 1960s it was eclipsed by the similar MDA (3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine) for its ability to induce euphoria. But in the second part of the 1980s and well into the 2000s it became popular in many New York nightclubs, including the gay club scene. MDMA crossed the Atlantic courtesy of British disk jockeys. Soon after, the rave phenomenon was underway in the United Kingdom and gained a foothold in New York in 1989 . In the meantime, it had become a Schedule I drug. 49 Discussion of the Literature The social history of illicit drug use is a relatively new field...
Industry, Commerce, and Urbanization in the United States, 1790–1870 Reference library
David Schley
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...figure that reflected hopes for the city’s future development more than its present prospects. Figure 3. E. B. Talcott, Map of Chicago Created by the Illinois and Michigan Canal Commissioners and Recorded on July 2, 1836 . Lithograph . New York: T. A. Mesier’s Lith., 1836. Courtesy of Chicago Historical Society, Creative Commons License ( CC BY-SA 3.0 ). New York investors saw potential in Chicago, particularly as its position on the Great Lakes could funnel goods to their waterfront via the Erie Canal. By making Chicago the western terminus of their rail...
Schools in US Cities Reference library
Ansley T. Erickson
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...citizenship. Presented with donations to support a new vocational school in New Orleans, black leaders rejected the proposal rather than accept it and its limitations. 19 Figure 1. Grammar School No. 33, New York City, Assembled for morning exercises, c. 1880–1890. Photo courtesy of the Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs, The New York Public Library, G91F216_059F . Within urban school systems, similar inclusions and exclusions coexisted as well. Chicago’s schools—including Lane—not only sorted students by race between vocational...
Irish Immigration and the American Working Class Reference library
David Brundage
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...goal was to create a clean, healthy, and controlled environment, avoiding the widespread distress caused by Britain’s industrial revolution ( Figure 1 ). Figure 1. Irish American child textile workers in Lowell, Massachusetts, photographed by Lewis Hine, early 20th century. Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, DC, LC-DIG-nclc-02394 . However, this model was already collapsing by the 1840s, when workers began to express dissatisfaction in a variety of ways, including going on strike. The arrival of the new Irish famine...
The Automobile and the American City Reference library
David Blanke
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...efficiency in which traditional cultural values would be preserved and enhanced.” 1 Figure 1. Americans’ frustration with “Crowded Highways” and their growing dependency upon the personal passenger car for urban transit were widely shared by mid-century.Cartoon by Hy Rosen.Courtesy of Library of Congress, 2016684046 . This awkward mixture of the subjective, lived experience and utilitarian efficiency led to the somewhat paradoxical relationship between the car and the city. On the one hand, Americans eagerly embraced the freedom and personal mobility offered...
Urban Exceptionalism in the American South Reference library
David Goldfield
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...soon led to the importation of enslaved African and Caribbean labor, placing the trajectory of Virginia, and then the Carolinas, and eventually Georgia, on a different track from the Northern colonies. Figure 1. Small tobacco ports along rivers in Virginia, 1862. Source : Courtesy of Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, 99446761 . This should not imply that the colonial North was an urban society and the colonial South luxuriated in a state of nature. English colonists throughout North America were primarily tillers of the soil. The difference...
Rap Music Reference library
Austin McCoy
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...The Mercedes Ladies ( Figure 1 ). Figure 1. Event flier for a hip hop performance at the Renaissance Ballroom on June 28, 1979. The event featured several notable DJs and rappers, including Grandmaster Flash, Melle Mel, and the Mercedes Ladies, an all-woman hip hop group. Courtesy Cornell University Library Hip-Hop Collection. Hip Hop Party and Event Flyers. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Library, Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections, 2013. The Mercedes Ladies emerged out of the all-female crews that roamed the Bronx. 13 The group featured several...
Tourism and the American City since 1800 Reference library
J. Mark Souther
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...in the mid-19th century, including the Custom House, Penitentiary, Alms House, US Mint, Exchange, Hospital, Independence Hall, Insane Asylum, Navy Asylum, Fair Mount, and Girard College. [Philadelphia]: Des. eng. & pub. by Jas. Queen (P.S. Duval & Co. Lith. Phila.), c . 1855. Courtesy of Library of Congress, LC-DIG-ppmsca-24840 . In addition to the allure of their novelty, the orderliness and air of calm of these institutions contrasted with the dizzying sense of upheaval that seemed to mark the nation’s incipient immigration and urbanization. Tourists also...
Urban Planning in the United States since 1850 Reference library
Harold L. Platt
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...and religious groups. Private ownership and governance of this early example of a master-planned community ensured strict conformity to architectural guidelines and social segregation. 10 Figure 3. Plan of Radburn , New Jersey. Clarence Stein and Henry Wright, 1929. Courtesy of Regional Plan Association. The New Deal, moreover, ushered in the heyday of regional and national planning. From 1933 to 1945 , the federal government became a seedbed of experiments in engineering the environment and society on an unprecedented scale. Regionalists, for example...
Food in the 19th-century American City Reference library
Cindy Lobel
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...delusion that they have dined.” 8 Indeed, on the whole, Americans fast developed a reputation for poor eating habits. English visitor Frances Trollope remarked with disgust upon dining habits she witnessed on a steamboat, where she observed “the total want of all the usual courtesies of the table.” She decried “the voracious rapidity with which the viands were seized and devoured … the loathsome spitting … the frightful manner of feeding with their knives, till the whole blade seemed to enter into the mouth; and the still more frightful manner of cleaning...
The City Beautiful Movement Reference library
John D. Fairfield
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...blighted the landscape. In the last decade of the century, an avalanche of commercial advertising added to the clutter and chaos of city streets. 1 Figure 1. Carcasses from the three and a half million horses that worked in city streets added to the squalor of urban America.Courtesy of the Library of Congress, LC-DIG-det-4a09038 . Over the course of the 19th century , sanitarians and physicians, landscape architects and civil engineers, and business leaders and citizen activists clamored for new municipal powers and services to address environmental threats...
Water and Water Management Reference library
Andrew P. Duffin, David Pietz, Justin Corfield, and Neeraj Vedwan
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...percent of the earth's water lies in oceans, it is the remaining freshwater that has been so valuable to humans and has been essential in creating life. In many Water Supply. Map of Rome's aqueducts and the details of their structure. Engraving by G. B. Piranesi (1720–1778). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland ways water use in early modern times resembled ancient methods: water plumbed cities in the Mediterranean region, moved crude waterwheels that powered gears used for a variety of purposes in Europe and Asia, and nourished...
