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Xi'an incident

Subject: History

(December 1936) The kidnapping of the Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek while visiting disaffected Manchurian troops at Xi'an. Chiang was captured by conspirators headed by Zhang ...

Xi’an Incident

Xi’an Incident   Reference library

David D. BUCK

Berkshire Encyclopedia of China

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2016

...Xian Incident ān Shìbìan 西安事变 ‎ The Xian Incident ( December 1936 ) occurred when two Chinese Nationalist generals, Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng , arrested President Chiang Kai-shek while he was in Xian to assist the Nationalist campaign against the Chinese Communists. Chiang was taken captive on 12 December and released on 25 December, partly at the urging of the Chinese Communists. Chiang might have been assassinated while a prisoner, but he won his freedom with a promise to undertake strong united resistance to the Japanese...

United Front

United Front  

Reference type:
Overview Page
The second coalition between the Guomindang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as well as other nationalist groups (1937–45). After an earlier period of cooperation had broken down in 1927, ...
Zhou Enlai

Zhou Enlai  

(b. Huaian, Jiangsu Province, 5 Mar. 1898; d. Beijing, 8 Jan. 1976)Chinese; Prime Minister, de facto director of Chinese foreign affairs 1949–76 Zhou Enlai was probably the most respected of all ...
China, Protest Movements in

China, Protest Movements in   Reference library

The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2010
Subject:
Social sciences
Length:
3,219 words

...Bei Dao—who organized a second letter calling for an amnesty that was signed by over one hundred. In April the death of Hu Yaobang brought the students back to Tiananmen Square in an action which evoked the 1976 mourning for Zhou Enlai. On 22 April half a million packed the square for Hu’s funeral ceremony, while there were riots in the provincial capitals of Changsha and Xian, caused by unemployed youth and rural migrants. The atmosphere remained calm until 26 April when the People’s Daily published an editorial inspired by Deng Xiaoping that described...

Media Coverage of the Environment

Media Coverage of the Environment   Reference library

Sam GEALL

Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2016
Subject:
Science and technology, Social sciences
Length:
2,897 words

...censorship. Information about environmental incidents and protests is sometimes tightly controlled. For nine days in July 2010 , for example, the Zijin Mining Company managed to avert media reports about a massive leak from one of its copper mines into the Ting River in Fujian Province. The leak caused the death of more than 1,500 tonnes of fish. The jailing and harassment of reporters that cover sensitive topics, including environmental investigations, continues. The Press Freedom Index 2011–2012 —an annual report of the measured degree of freedom...

Criminal Justice

Criminal Justice   Reference library

Encyclopedia of Social Work (20 ed.)

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2008

...incidents involving African Americans or people of color and police officers, many of whom are White, make matters worse. Prominent examples include the Rodney King beating by officers in California; the Abner Louima incident, where a Haitian was sodomized with a stick while in police custody; the Amadou Diallo incident, where Diallo was fired at 41 times and killed; and more recently, the incident in New York when Sean Bell was shot at more than 50 times and killed after he and his friends left a bachelor party. These incidents, and many other incidents...

China

China   Reference library

William A. Joseph

The Oxford Companion to International Relations

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2014
Subject:
Social sciences, Politics
Length:
4,345 words

...of ethnic violence, and even online dissent. There are thousands of “mass incidents” every year involving demonstrations by farmers or workers demanding the redress of economic grievances. Most of these are directed at local officials or employers, and they often involve appeals to higher authorities, who frequently promise to fix the problem while making sure that the protests don’t spread geographically or lead to the mobilization of other segments of society that might result in an organized movement of any kind. The CCP has also been remarkably adaptive in...

Finland

Finland   Reference library

Osmo Kontula, Elina Haavio-Mannila, O. Kontula, and E. Haavio-Mannila

Contiuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2010
Subject:
Social sciences, Society and culture
Length:
32,706 words
Illustration(s):
1

...sexual intercourse in 49% of the incidents. In 1992 , only 37% of the most recent experiences of sexual intercourse were initiated solely by the man. Fifteen percent of the male respondents said that the woman was the initiator of the last sexual intercourse, but this figure was only 10% according to the women's responses. Women were slightly more likely than men to report that both partners took an equal role in initiating intercourse, 51% compared with 45%. Women may find it more difficult to admit that they have taken an active role in coitus. Alcohol...

Turkey

Turkey   Reference library

Hamdullah Aydin, Zeynep Gülçat, H. Aydın, and Z. Gülçat

Contiuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2010
Subject:
Social sciences, Society and culture
Length:
20,336 words
Illustration(s):
1

...kimlik ve cinsel davranış bozukluklarında kişilik özellikleri [Personality characteristics in gender identity and sexual behavior disorders] . GATA Bülteni , 31:651–660. Bozkurt, A. , H. Aydın , & H. Işıklı . 1999. Psychopathology in male sexual dysfunction . Presented at XI World Congress of Psychiatry, Hamburg/Germany (abstracts book, vol. II, p. 23). Bozkurt, A. 1996. Erkek cinsel işlev bozukluklarında psikopatolojinin araştırıilması [A study on psychopathology in male sexual dysfunctions] . Unpublished dissertation, GATA, Ankara. Brooks, G. ...

Brazil

Brazil   Reference library

Sérgio Luiz Gonçalves de Freitas, Elí Fernandes de Oliveira, Lourenço Stélio Rega, Raymond J. Noonan, Dra. Sandra Almeida, and Luciane Raibin

Contiuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2010
Subject:
Social sciences, Society and culture
Length:
17,869 words
Illustration(s):
1

...between a couple, and they remain united until the death of one of the consorts. Dissolution of a marriage occurs with ease and frequency. Any incident as simple as a domestic disturbance or indisposition can lead to separation. The major cause of breach is the wife's adultery. In these cases, the mildest punishment is for the wife to be returned to her parents. A man may also repudiate, or even kill an adulterous woman, according to the tribe's natural laws. However, a man's adultery is received with approval by the community, which is amused by it....

Italy

Italy   Reference library

Bruno P. F. Wanrooij and B. P. F. Wanrooij

Contiuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2010
Subject:
Social sciences, Society and culture
Length:
17,607 words
Illustration(s):
1

...93.0% 1988 1,773 90.4% 1989 2,480 90.8% 1990 3,135 89.1% 1991 3,826 88.7% 1992 4,261 85.6% 1993 4,818 77.6% 1994 5,521 72.7% 1995 5,654 56.9% 1996 4,993 36.7% 1997 3,728 20.7% 1998 (to 30 September 1998 ) 1,430 13.6% Total 42,899 67.5% (Instituto Superiore di Sanità, Notiziario, XI, 11 November 1998 ) Among the men diagnosed as being infected with AIDS, drug addicts are the major category (63.6%), followed by men with homosexual experiences (19.7%). Heterosexual experiences are held responsible for 15.2% of the cases of AIDS, but heterosexual contact is the...

Alfonso XI of Castile

Alfonso XI of Castile (1311–1350)   Reference library

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2010

...XI of Castile ( 1311–1350 ), king of Castile (r. 1312–1350 ). A military reformer and commander of European-wide fame, Alfonso XI ascended to the throne when he was barely a year old after the death of Fernando IV (r. 1295–1312 ). The ensuing thirteen-year minority saw Castile sink into a state of almost constant civil war as various magnate factions sought control of the regency. This state of affairs did not end even when Alfonso started ruling as an adult. The young king, in spite of the vulnerability of his position, continued southward Castilian...

Chiang Kai-shek

Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975)   Reference library

Jonathan FENBY, Dian QU, and Chieh-Ju LIAO

The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2014
Subject:
History, Regional and National History, Social sciences, Regional and Area Studies
Length:
7,501 words
Illustration(s):
3

...in December 1936 . The Generalissimo was held for two weeks and then released without having given any formal undertaking to agree to Zhang’s demands ( see sidebar “The Xian Incident”). Despite this, the national mood revealed by the Xian Incident called for a united front against the Japanese, which was then put together but not without many reservations on both sides. Chiang pursued a military build-up in the Shanghai region with the help of his new German advisor, General Alexander von Falkenhausen, but kept this secret lest he give Tokyo a reason...

Missouri Valley

Missouri Valley   Reference library

Matt Meacham

The Grove Dictionary of American Music (2 ed.)

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2013
Subject:
Music, Social sciences, Regional and Area Studies
Length:
1,383 words

...of a Vanishing Culture (Columbia, MO, 1977, R /2006) L.A. Wolz : “Folk Music in Missouri: an Annotated Bibliography,” Missouri Folklore Society Journal , viii–ix (1986–1987), 193–213 H. Marshall , et al: liner notes, Now That's a Good Tune: Masters of Traditional Missouri Fiddling , 1994, U. of Missouri Extension/Grey Eagle Records (reissued in 2008 by U. of Missouri Extension/Voyager Records) H. Jennings : “Grand Opera in Nebraska in the 1890s,” OQ , xi/2 (1995), 97–118 T. Jack : “The Omaha Gospel Complex in Historical Perspective,” Great Plains...

Liú Ān

Liú Ān (179–122 bce)   Reference library

Hanmo ZHANG

The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2014
Subject:
History, Regional and National History, Social sciences, Regional and Area Studies
Length:
2,273 words
Illustration(s):
2

...reclaimed the princedom of Huainan from Liu Xi (who was enfeoffed there after Liu Chang’s death), divided it into three parts, and allocated them to Liu Chang’s three sons. Liu An, then a teenager and the eldest son of Liu Chang, inherited his father’s title of nobility and became the king of Huainan. Unlike his rather arrogant, violent father, Liu An was a man of culture. It is said that he showed interest in literature and talent in composition from an early age. Unlike other scions of the Han imperial family, Liu An was not fond of riding, hunting, or...

Sūnzǐ

Sūnzǐ   Reference library

Kerry Brown

The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2014
Subject:
History, Regional and National History, Social sciences, Regional and Area Studies
Length:
2,553 words
Illustration(s):
1

...come to them, and do not go to others! Another incident related in The Art of War known as the Ambush at Maling (in 342 bce ) serves as an example of the kinds of devious strategies that Sunzi admired. Twelve years after the state of Zhao was saved through the siege of Wei, the state of Wei in turn attacked the Han state. The Han ruler called on the state of Qi for help. Tian Ji and Sun Bin (the chief general and the chief strategist, respectively), commanding the Qi army, immediately led the army in an attack against the Wei capital. As soon as General...

Korea, North

Korea, North   Quick reference

A Guide to Countries of the World (4 ed.)

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2016
Subject:
Encyclopedias, Geographical reference, Social sciences, Regional and Area Studies
Length:
1,450 words
Illustration(s):
2

...anyway to have been damaged beyond use). In June, Kim also held talks with Trump and was the more diplomatically adept, gaining status and giving away little beyond a wish to discuss in the future the denuclearization of the Korean peninsula. Ahead of that meeting he also met Xi Jingping twice in China and the Russian foreign minister, Sergei Lavrov. A second meeting with Trump, held in Hanoi in February 2019, ended early with no agreement on lifting sanctions in return for denuclearization. In April, he met President Putin for the first time at a summit...

Wāng Jīngwèi

Wāng Jīngwèi (1883–1944)   Reference library

Patrick Fuliang SHAN

The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2014
Subject:
History, Regional and National History, Social sciences, Regional and Area Studies
Length:
5,449 words
Illustration(s):
1

...most of 1936 in Europe. In December 1936 and January 1937 , in what became known as the Xian Incident, Chiang was put under house arrest by his northern generals, who demanded an end of the anti-Communist campaign and the activation of full resistance to Japan. Any hope Wang may have had of replacing Chiang was dashed when Chiang was released, returning to a hero’s welcome in Nanjing, while the anti-Communist campaign was quietly called off. (The Xian Incident is discussed in more detail in the article in this volume on Chiang Kai-shek.) The party now...

Máo Zédōng

Máo Zédōng (1893–1976)   Reference library

Ross TERRILL

The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2014
Subject:
History, Regional and National History, Social sciences, Regional and Area Studies
Length:
8,608 words
Illustration(s):
5

..., 2:300). During what came to be known as the Xian Incident of 1936 , two of Chiang Kai-shek’s own generals nabbed him near the city of Xian and delivered him into Mao’s hands. Mao set Chiang free to satisfy Stalin, who was worried about danger to the USSR from Japan, and a fresh “United Front” began between the Communists and the Nationalists, this time to fight the common enemy of Japan. Mao renamed the Red Army the National Revolutionary Army and placed it under Nanjing’s authority. “Had the Xian Incident not occurred,” writes the British author...

Religious Regulation in China

Religious Regulation in China   Reference library

Lawrence C. Reardon

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion

Reference type:
Subject Reference
Current Version:
2020
Subject:
Social sciences, Politics, Religion
Length:
9,485 words

...Buddhists, and radicalized Islam influencing Uyghur nationalists. To deal with these threats over the years, CCP religious strategies have included co-option, eradication, and collaboration. The post-Deng leaders, including Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao, and Xi Jinping, have thus elevated religious policy to an issue of national security along with economic development and national defense strategies. They have used traditional religions and beliefs, such as Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, to strengthen moral standards and to supplement the state’s social...

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