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Web 1.0/Web 2.0 Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...Web 1.0/Web 2.0 . The terms Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 are typically used to compare different stages in the development of the World Wide Web (invented in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee). As the numbers suggest, Web 1.0 is used to refer to the first stage in the development of the web, whereas Web 2.0 (a term coined in 1999 ) denotes a later stage, which became prominent in the mid-2000s. At the heart of the comparison between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 is a perceived shift with respect to the web’s interactivity. Web 1.0 is seen as a read-only, comparatively...
Quechuan Languages Reference library
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 ed.)
...2,782,500 speakers in the highland regions and lowland except around Apolo. Dialects are Sucre, Cochabamba, Oruro, Potosí, Chuquisaca. May be intelligible with Chilean Quechua and Northwest Jujuy Quechua in Argentina. In Argentina: 850,000 speakers in Buenos Aires, some working on docks. Some speakers also in Salta Province. Quechua, Southern Pastaza: also called Inga. 1,000 speakers in Peru, the northern jungle, Anatico Lake, Pastaza and Huasaga Rivers, and along the Urituyacu. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish are 0 60%, 1 20%, 2 10%, 3 10%, 4 0%, 5 0...
Mathematical Linguistics Reference library
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 ed.)
...documents (Web page files) with arbitrary text is a CFL. An HTML document (with arbitrary text content) has this sort of structure: <HTML> <HEAD> <TITLE> Jane Doe's Home Page </TITLE> </HEAD> <BODY> <H1> Jane Doe </H1> <H2> Home Page </H2> <P> <CENTER> <IMG src=“jane.jpg”> </CENTER> </P> </BODY> </HTML> The expression <HTML> must be followed by </HTML>, <HEAD> must be followed by </HEAD>, and so on, in the same pattern as matched parentheses. Thus, recognizing that a string belongs to a certain CFL is one of the tasks performed by a Web browser. The CFLs...
Parsing Reference library
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 ed.)
...and noun phrase parser for unrestricted text. In Proceedings of the 2nd ACL Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing , pp. 136–143. Austin, Tex. Collins, Michael . 1997. Three generative, lexicalised models for statistical parsing. In Proceedings of the 35th Meeting of the ACL , pp. 16–23. Madrid. Frazier, Lyn , and Janet Dean Fodor . 1978. The sausage machine: A new two stage parsing model . Cognition 6.291–325. Grosz, Barbara J. , Karen Sparck Jones , and Bonnie Lynn Webber , eds. 1986. Readings in natural language processing . Los Altos,...
Acquisition of Language Reference library
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 ed.)
...first hundred words, they may over-extend up to 40% of them. Under-extensions and overlaps are harder to document; however, they may be even more pervasive in children's meanings, during a longer period, than over-extensions. The latter become rare by the age of 2;0 (i.e. 2 years, 0 months) to 2;6. Most observations about early meanings have come from diary studies of language production; however, researchers have also examined some sources of children's hypotheses about word-meanings by looking systematically at how children understand words, as well as...
Computational Linguistics Reference library
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 ed.)
...New York: Academic Press. Green, Bert F. , et al. 1961. BASEBALL: An automatic question answerer. Reprinted in Grosz et al. 1986, pp. 545–549. Grosz, Barbara J. , Karen Sparck Jones , and Bonnie L. Webber , eds. 1986. Readings in natural language processing . Los Altos, Calif.: Kaufmann. Harris, Larry R. 1984. Experience with INTELLECT . AI Magazine 5:2.3–50. Hendrix, Gary G. , et al. 1978. Developing a natural language interface to complex data. Reprinted in Grosz et al. 1986, pp. 563–584. Hutchins, William John . 1986. Machine translation: Past,...
Sociolinguistics Reference library
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 ed.)
...is related to factors like ‘preceding sound segment is a vowel’, ‘subject type is a Full NP’, ‘speaker is female’, or ‘style is formal’, using data on rule applications in various environments. These weightings range between 0 and 1. The closer these numbers are to 1, the more highly favoring the effect is; the closer they are to 0, the more disfavoring the effect is. For example, in the variation between [ŋ] and [n], a factor weight of .75 for [ŋ] would indicate that there is a very strong probability for [ŋ] in the environment in question (perhaps a...
Hypertext Reference library
Encyclopedia of Rhetoric
...are no less interesting in light of the fact that most were written prior to 1994 and can now be evaluated in light of the advent and growth of the World Wide Web. Landow, George P. Hypertext 2.0 . Baltimore, 1997. As the definitive work on hypertext to date, this book describes the development, nature, and applications of hypertext, primarily in the period just prior to its use on the World Wide Web. Applying the critical theories of Deleuze and Guattari, Derrida, Barthes, Lyotard, and others, Landow explains how the phenomenon of hypertext changes how we...
Arrangement Reference library
Encyclopedia of Rhetoric
...in an Electronic Age . New York, 1988. Claims that informal conversational structure has replaced formal argument in televised political exchanges. Landow, George P. Hypertext 2.0: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology . 2d ed. Baltimore, 1977. Argues that the linear arrangement of individual literary texts will be replaced by continuous webs of text. Larsen, Richard . “ Toward a Linear Rhetoric of the Essay. ” College Composition and Communication 22 (1971), pp. 140–146. An application of speech act theory to arrangement,...
Linguistics Reference library
Encyclopedia of Rhetoric
...of bars or superscripts (e.g., X 0 , X 1 , X 2 , X 3 …). To date, there is no consensus as to the exact number of intermediate levels. Every phrase has a head and every head of the next level of division belongs to the same lexical or functional category, a fact that is captured by the following general rule: X n → … X n-1 …. Phrases that cannot be further expanded are called maximal projections (X max , e.g., noun phrase). Phrases can contain a specifier (one level below X max ), complements (one level above X 0 ). X 0 -elements are lexical categories...
World-Wide Web Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...World-Wide Web ( WWW , the Web ) . A global electronic system for organizing, making available and accessing documents on the internet using a hypertext system. See web 1.0/web 2.0 . ...
Chat Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...A type of communication that is defined by being internet-based, synchronous, conversational-like, and not necessarily restricted to one-to-one communication. Early uses of chat pre-date the web , with the first chat system being established in 1973 . Early popular chat systems included ICQ (‘I seek you’) and AOL’s Instant Messenger. With the development of Web 2.0, chat services became increasingly incorporated into various websites and is now a standard feature of most online communication, e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Skype. The integration with smartphones...
Hypertext Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...exclusively on the web ( see worldwide web ). Hypertext derives from an idea put forward in 1945 by the US computer designer Vannevar Bush , and the term was coined by the US entrepreneur Ted Nelson . Educational and other systems which include pictures and sound, are known as hypermedia . Hypertext has its own protocol associated to it: HTML, or hypertext protocol markup language. Developments in hypertext, such as XML and RSS, have led to important development in online communication, notably Wikipedia, blogs , news feeds, web 2.0 , and social media...
Affordance Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...studies generally to refer to the opportunities made available by a resource, especially a technology. It is typically used to describe the range of potential uses made available to the user. This term is often used in contrast to ‘constraint’. For example, the development of web 2.0 brought new affordances to computer-mediated communication and meant that there were new things that users could do, for example commenting on a blog , something that at the time of writing is taken for granted. ...
Wikipedia Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...the English Wikipedia is that there is no single preferred variety of English and ‘an article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation uses the appropriate variety of English for that nation’ (Wikipedia). See digital writing ; hypertext ; web 1.0/web 2.0 . ...
Social Networking Sites Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...important claims about how they view and position themselves vis-à-vis others and how they view others vis-à-vis themselves. SNSs became popular in the 2000s, particularly from the latter half onwards, and are central to current definitions of the worldwide web as social and participatory ( see web 2.0 ). They are hence typically classified as ‘social media’. Yet aside from this defining feature, there is much variation among SNS networks. They vary with respect to both technological affordances (e.g. modality and synchronicity) and social factors (e.g....
Hashtag Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...Hashtag . A special character, #, traditionally referred to as the number sign, which is used in computer-mediated communication , especially since web 2.0 , to tag or label words, phrase, images, or any kind of document or media so that it can be used to group all similarly tagged items or so that it becomes searchable, since the hashtag is now a recognized HTML code ( see hyptertext ). Although its use in Internet chat forums such as IRC dates back to 1988 , it is most commonly associated to the online platform Twitter from around 2007 but has...
Wiki Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...on writing documents with this type of platform. Invented by Ward Cunningham , a computer programmer, in 1994 , a typical wiki is simple text which is coded using a simplified markup language (e.g. HTML), often using a built-in rich text editor. In the early wikis, before web 2.0 , users would have had to use HTML to mark up the language, e.g. ‘the word bold ’ would ‘markup’ the word bold in bold font giving ‘the word bold ’. Wikis enable anyone, not just experts, to edit any page within the wiki. This technology enabled the development of wikipedia...
Computer-Mediated Communication Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
..., for instance, underscores a focus on language, whereas the shift from computer to digital, Internet and keyboard-to-screen highlights the variety of ways interaction can be technologically mediated. web 2.0 has also become an increasingly popular concept, used to draw attention to the progressively social and participatory nature of the World Wide Web. Since an electronic device is needed to mediate communication, these labels draw attention to the importance of technology for communication. This includes what technology affords or makes available for...
Print and Printing Quick reference
The Oxford Companion to the English Language (2 ed.)
...new systems for typesetting. In the 20c, there was a pronounced shift towards general literacy and a vast provision of printed materials throughout the world and in particular throughout the English-speaking world. Developments in digital technology, including the internet ; web 2.0 , and new file formats, especially PDF (portable document format) and hypertext , have radically changed the print industry. Nature and impact A printed book not only involves a different technology from a manuscript, but results in a different product. Whereas manuscripts were...
