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Feminism and Peace Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...in History, Politics, and Social Theory , edited by Jean Bethke Elshtain and Sheila Tobias , pp. 141–160. Lantham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1990. Bussey, Gertrude , and Margaret Tims . Pioneers for Peace: Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom 1915–1965 . London and Geneva: Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, 1980. Cockburn, Cynthia . From Where We Stand: War, Women’s Activism, and Feminist Analysis . London and New York: Zed Books, 2007. Feinman, Ilene Rose . Citizenship Rites: Feminist Soldiers and Feminist...
Arbitration of Disputes, History of Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...arbitration was already known in ancient times. For instance, between 650 and 98 bce , the arbitral function in the Hellenic world was performed by small city-states, regional leagues, corporate bodies (like the Delphic Oracle and the Areopagus), statesmen, and foreign rulers. A well-known case was the treaty of 445 bce in which Athens and Sparta, at the end of the First Peloponnesian War (461–445 bce ), agreed on a thirty-year armistice and promised not to go to war against a party that was willing to submit the issues in dispute to arbitration. However,...
Women and War Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...world war, and they formed the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. The Nobel Peace Prize committee recognized the organization’s ability to bring people together across warring boundaries by awarding its first president, Jane Addams, the prize in 1931 and its secretary, Emily Greene Bach, the prize in 1946 . Although not the oldest international peace organization still in operation today (that honor goes to two much older organizations that include men), the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom continues to advocate for peace...
Humanism Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...on the nature, practice, and implications of war and peace. The Classical and Medieval Worlds Although taken for granted as both natural and inevitable by most in the classical world, war was not valued for itself but only as a means to some other end. In his history of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides makes clear his own judgment that the armed struggle between oligarchic Sparta and democratic Athens was an unnecessary clash of ambitions, with both sides to blame. He characterizes the Athenian position as a simple impulse toward empire, where the strong rule...
Disarmament Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...in 1919 stipulated that Germany be disarmed so that other nations could disarm. But all security schemes in the 1920s and 1930s were subverted by the U.S. failure to join the League of Nations. Even though Germany’s forces were disbanded, France and its allies demanded stronger security guarantees as the precondition for laying down their weapons. Given the weaknesses of the League system, the Versailles victors never agreed to comprehensive disarmament. Nor did they act to prevent Germany’s rearmament. Nuclear Weapons Arms competition changed radically...
Women, Peace, and War Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...own council would never initiate an armed conflict. The idea of women as pacifists and peacebrokers had already been envisioned by the Greek playwright Aristophanes around 400 bce . In his play Lysistrata , the Athenian protagonist (Lysistrata) seeks a “means to stamp the [Peloponnesian] war out.” She convinces her peers to “compel the men to bow to peace” by withholding sex from their husbands and lovers. At the same time, she tries to take charge of the national treasury and dispatch ambassadors to negotiate peace. In the play, Lysistrata is successful....
Art Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace
...Dreadnought , renamed Workers’ Dreadnought in 1917 . Its attractive appearance helped make the Marxist-socialist antiwar journal widely influential. In 1915 Pankhurst was on the founding executive of the British branch of the Women’s International League ( WIL ), which became the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). Pankhurst joined demonstrations against conscription and was imprisoned for sedition from October 1920 until May 1921 for Dreadnought articles allegedly inciting mutiny among the armed forces. Deeply anti-racist, she...
Peloponnesian War Reference library
Matt Simonton
The Oxford Companion to International Relations
...expertise, they soon afforded Athens a near-monopoly on the means of violence within the League. The Athenians transferred the League treasury from Delos to Athens and exacted tribute from their imperial subjects. (For overviews of the Athenian empire see Meiggs, 1972 ; and Kallet-Marx, 2008 . ) Athens’ naval, cash-based, increasingly democratic empire contrasted strongly with traditional Greek norms, and in particular with the model of Sparta's Peloponnesian League, in which largely oligarchic states contributed hoplite infantry forces rather than money...
Sanctions Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World (2 ed.)
...by Athens during the Peloponnesian War in the fifth century b.c. , France organized a grain boycott against Britain during the Napoleonic Wars, and in the twentieth century naval blockades were instituted by belligerents in both world wars. During the Cold War, Western countries maintained an embargo on exports of strategic goods to the Soviet Union. However, the concept of multilateral economic sanctions as a means of ensuring “collective security” was introduced by the League of Nations in 1920 , and in spite of the failure of League sanctions against...
Cumulative Knowledge, Science, and the Emergence of International Relations Reference library
Torbjørn L. Knutsen
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Empirical International Relations Theory
...Past as Prologue How far back should we go? Some authors draw the lineage as far back as Thucydides’s History of the Peloponnesian Wars (written about 400 bc ) ( Lebow, 2008 ; Nye, 2008 ). They demonstrate that key characteristics of realism—concepts like fear, rivalry, and balance of power—is found as far back as in ancient Greece. Also, they point out that Thucydides did not merely pose questions about the causes of the Peloponnesian War, but that he had bigger ambitions than that: he wanted to produce knowledge about war in general. He wanted to...
International Systems Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World (2 ed.)
...Systems . In a 1947 Princeton speech General George C. Marshall doubted “whether a man can think with full wisdom and with deep convictions regarding certain of the basic issues of today who has not at least reviewed in his mind the period of the Peloponnesian War and the fall of Athens”; he probably had in mind Thucydides ' time-defying claim to have written his history not for momentary popularity, but “for all time.” Indeed, Thucydides wished to discover an exact knowledge of the past “which (human nature being what it is) will, at some time...
Security Reference library
Lucas Kello
The Oxford Companion to International Relations
...in 1919 through the creation of a League of Nations whose central function was to oversee the peaceful resolution of disputes and, if necessary, to punish aggressors with sanctions or even armed force. Here, then, was an attempt to resolve the security dilemma by conceptual fiat. Because it defines security as peace itself, the doctrine of collective security holds that the outbreak of war imperils all nations in equal measure; thus, violence will be resisted uniformly. During the lifetime of the League, however, the peace concept was repeatedly...
War Reference library
David Fisher
The Oxford Companion to International Relations
...That is the aim of the just-war tradition. [ See also Arab-Israeli Conflict ; Bosnian War ; Cold War ; Force, Use of ; Guerrilla Warfare ; Gulf War ; Iran-Iraq War ; Iraq, US Invasion of ; Just War Theory ; Kashmir, Conflict in ; Korean War ; Kosovo War ; Peloponnesian War ; Preemptive and Preventive War ; Realism ; Rwandan Genocide ; Spanish Civil War ; Vietnam War ; War Crimes ; War Crimes Tribunals ; Warfare, Rules of ; World War I ; and World War II . ] Bibliography Clausewitz, Karl von . On War . Translated by Michael Howard...
Power Transition Theory and the Essence of Revisionism Reference library
Jonathan M. DiCicco
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Empirical International Relations Theory
...(PTT) tradition has much to offer analysts who see an impending power shift as the central tension driving 21st-century international relations—and yet, such analysts often look elsewhere for inspiration and insight. For example, citing the historical precedent of the Peloponnesian War and Thucydides’ reflections on its causes, Graham Allison ( 2012 , 2014 , 2015a , 2015b ) has made a project of warning U.S. public officials about the correspondence between the Athens-Sparta confrontation and a potential China-United States confrontation. Allison,...
Neutrality/Nonalignment and the United States Reference library
Robert Rakove
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Foreign Relations
...various hopes—support from a league of neutrals, intervention by Athens’s rival Sparta, and the fortunes of the battlefield—the outnumbered Melians chose to resist, with disastrous consequences. This grim chapter in human history is often invoked in international relations classes to illustrate the perils of the state system and the ways by which power is often coldly wielded. It does, to an extent, also reflect the sometime fate of neutral states faced by a merciless great power. Yet a subsequent chain of events in the Peloponnesian War is far more...
Mantineia, battles of (418) Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...battles of ( 418 , 362 , and 207 bc ). These three battles spanned the whole development of Greek warfare from a typical hoplite battle to the appearance of catapults. The first was during the Peloponnesian wars and was fought between a largely Spartan and Tegeate army, and a combined army consisting largely of Mantineians, Argives, and Athenians. Having the larger army, the Spartan King Agis II attempted to cover the enemy overlap on his left by shifting his left wing outwards and plugging the gap with units from the right. But his orders...
Greek city-state wars (395–362 bc) Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...city-state wars ( 395–362 bc ). Defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian wars ended the artificial order imposed on a normally fragmented Greece by the great alliances headed by Athens and Sparta . What followed was a chaotic period in which Sparta, Thebes , and a renascent Athens jostled for power, with Persia stirring the pot. Fear of any one state growing powerful enough to dominate the others is the key to understanding the shifting alliances. Thus fear of Sparta was essentially the cause of the Corinthian war ( 395–386 ), in which her former...
Greek historians Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...of military experience, that is true of most military historians, and his supposed naivety may accurately reflect the unsophisticated nature of the warfare of his time. Thucydides ( ?460– c. 390 bc ) is very different, but he was contemporary with his main subject, the Peloponnesian wars , and too much can be made of his military experience, which only certainly amounted to one campaign. Despite the existence of far more documentary evidence, most of the evidence he used was also oral, and we should not assume that he checked it more carefully than ...
International Organization and Ending Conflicts Reference library
Alistair D. Edgar
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...by the work of Thucydides, Knutsen adds that he nonetheless borrowed stories from The Peloponnesian War and, like Thucydides and Livy, he believed firmly that the lessons of history could be employed as a valuable tool for the political education of state leaders ( Knutsen 1992 :33–40; Boucher 1998 :90–144). While there is agreement about the prominent role of Thucydides more generally in shaping the works of subsequent theorists, and especially of The Peloponnesian War as a central text of what later would become the Realist strand of international...
Feminist Contributions and Challenges to Peace Studies Reference library
Catia Cecilia Confortini
The International Studies Encyclopedia
...but their organization continued and, after the war, took the name of Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom ( WILPF ), which is now the oldest international women’s peace organization and one of the oldest peace organizations in the world. At the end of the war, the women protested the terms of the Versailles Treaty, anticipated that resentment over the terms of the treaty would eventually lead to another war, and supported the creation of the League of Nations ( Schott 1997 :78–79). The interwar years saw increased reflection on the importance...
