World Health Organization
World Health Organization Reference library
John M. Last
The Oxford Companion to Medicine (3 ed.)
... 1851 , and led to the formation of l'Office International d'Hygien Publique in 1907 . This and the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau were the precursors for the health office of the League of Nations, which was established after the Great War of 1914–18 . After World War II the functions of the Health Office were taken over in 1948 by the World Health Organization ( WHO ). Next to the UN General Assembly and the Security Council, WHO has been called the most important agency of the United Nations. However, as so much of the debate in the General Assembly...
smallpox: The Great Killers Reference library
Lise Wilkinson
The Oxford Companion to Medicine (3 ed.)
...after exposure protects against the disease; this was the basis of the containment strategy. Fred Soper , of the USA, deserves the credit for first suggesting this in 1949 , and the Soviet delegates to the World Health Assembly for insisting that Soper's strategy should be tried. In 1806 , Thomas Jefferson had written to Edward Jenner when congratulating him on his development of vaccination: ‘You have erased from the calendar of human afflictions one of its greatest … future nations will know by history only that the loathsome small-pox has existed’....
changing patterns of disease in the 20th century Reference library
Irvine Loudon
The Oxford Companion to Medicine (3 ed.)
...foods, lack of exercise, and the tendency to spend hours in front of television while consuming crisps or candy. League tables have been drawn up, some of which suggest that Germany is said to lead (if ‘lead’ is the right word) Europe in the tables of excessive obesity. But, as any visitor to the United States will attest, the extreme obesity of many American citizens is particularly striking. Nosology Changing patterns of disease and expanding knowledge are reflected in changes in nosology, the science of the classification and nomenclature of disease. There...
Africa — present and future Reference library
Solomon R. Benatar and H. J. C. Van Rensburg
The Oxford Companion to Medicine (3 ed.)
...colonial times, with three kinds of agencies distributing the bulk of medical care in African countries: governments (through the army, navy, civilian, and development components), missions (particularly for rural Africans); and private companies (for employees and their relatives). Later came international agencies, such as the League of Nations and the International Labor Organization, and even later the United Nations, in particular the multi-lateral World Health Organization, United Nations Children's Fund, and United Nations Development Plan, the European...
International Labour Organization Quick reference
A Dictionary of Public Health (2 ed.)
...International Labour Organization ( ILO ) The agency established by the League of Nations after the conclusion of the Peace Conference that attempted to resolve the world's problems after World War I. The ILO was one of the few positive achievements of the Peace Conference. It has greatly helped to improve working conditions in industry and agriculture, applying pressure to limit dangerous working conditions and child labor, improve working conditions for women, provide social security for workers, and much else. See ...
World Health Organization Quick reference
A Dictionary of Public Health (2 ed.)
...the Health Office of the League of Nations, the World Health Organization is among the most important of the United Nations agencies. Its wide responsibilities include surveillance and control of health problems affecting the world's people, especially the people in tropical and low-income countries where pervasive and intractable health problems persist. It conducts and sponsors health research and is a standard-setting, information-disseminating, and educational organization. The achievements of the WHO include coordination and direction of efforts to...
World Health Organization Reference library
Paul R. Greenough
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology
...Specialized organization of the United Nations (UN). Headquartered in Geneva, the World Health Organization (WHO) was founded in 1948 . Its constitution, adopted in 1946 by a UN-sponsored World Health Assembly, envisioned an ambitious effort to raise health standards worldwide. The WHO’s antecedents included a series of international sanitary conferences beginning in 1851 ; an International Bureau of Public Hygiene created in Paris in 1907 ; and an International Health Organization established by the League of Nations in 1921 . Governed by a World...
Bicycles and Bicycling Reference library
Hannah Borgeson
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology
...also more dependent on roads, and in 1880 Pope and others founded the League of American Wheelmen (LAW, now LAB, or League of American Bicyclists) to advocate for good roads with bike access. Cycling was further popularized through local clubs with posh clubhouses and group rides. Approximately 100,000 high wheelers were on the road in the United States by 1887 . Young, athletic males were the primary market, but even among them the high wheeler’s appeal was limited by the risk of dramatic headers (i.e., head-first crashes). The “safety” bicycle addressed...
Pure Food And Drug Act Reference library
John D. Buenker
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology
...The measure won backing from a broad-based coalition including the National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments, the National Consumers’ League, the American Medical Association, and the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, joined by some well-established manufacturers seeking to eliminate marginal competitors. Its opponents included the National Food Manufacturers’ Association, the National Liquor Wholesale Dealers’ Association, and the Proprietary Association of America, the drug industry’s lobbying arm. Sponsored by two Republican senators and two...
Alcohol and Alcohol Abuse Reference library
Sarah W. Tracy
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology
...Annual per capita consumption of absolute alcohol when Rush wrote ranged between four and six gallons (more than twice the rate in 2007 ), and evidence suggests a further sharp rise between 1800 and 1830 ( Hyman et al., 1980 ; LaVallee and Yi, 2011 ) The profitability of corn whiskey, heavy frontier drinking, the spread of saloons in cities, and the immigration of beer-drinking Germans and whiskey-swilling Irish all encouraged the nation’s bibulous tendencies. The years of the early republic also witnessed the rise of “firewater myths” about American...
Multicultural Sport Psychology’s Consulting Role in the United States Activist-Athlete Movement Reference library
Jessica L. David, Jesse A. Steinfeldt, I. S. Keino Miller, and Jacqueline E. Hyman
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
... 2011 ). The use of sport as a vehicle to raise awareness of social issues has been a common thread within the United States over time. The contemporary divisive political climate has brought this awareness to a heightened point, with the most recent attention surrounding protests during the U.S. national anthem at professional sporting events, namely National Football League (NFL) games. The weekend of September 24, 2017 , provided the opportunity to witness league-wide solidarity in response to U.S. president Donald Trump’s criticism of players’ rights to...
Gambling in Sport and Performance Psychology Reference library
Loredana A. Marchica and Jeffrey L. Derevensky
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
...and try to use a wide variety of data and statistics on the performance of actual players to either draft or bid on players to form their teams. According to the Fantasy Sports Trade Association (FSTA), in 2017 the average age of most fantasy sports players was 38 years old, with 70% of these individuals engaged in fantasy sports with monetary fees and jackpots (it should be noted that a number of fantasy leagues do not require monetary investments). However, 34% of adolescents in the United States and 21% of adolescents in Canada reported having participated...
Forensic Pathology and Death Investigation Reference library
Jeffrey M. Jentzen
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology
...incapable of making medical decisions to determine the cause and manner of death. Childs pressured state legislators to abolish coroners and enact medical examiner offices. He regularly published a list of the states with coroners and labeled them “The Best Places for Murder.” In 1951 the National Municipal League published its proposal entitled “A Model State Medico-Legal Investigative System.” The report argued that hospital-based pathologists without forensic training were incapable of interpreting injuries and determining the cause and manner of death in...
Leadership Skills in Sport Reference library
W. James Weese and P. Chelladurai
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
...sports to international markets and created the industry known as sports marketing. He was ahead of his time. Consider also the example of Pete Rozelle, the former commissioner of the National Football League. He transformed the league by implementing a cost-sharing mechanism with television revenue that ensured competitive balance and league-wide prosperity. Stacey Allister transformed women’s tennis in her role as the CEO and president of the World Tennis Association. She brought parity to the tournament prize money earned by female and male players. Theo...
Sociocultural Aspects of Sport Injury and Recovery Reference library
Diane M. Wiese-Bjornstal
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
...or interpersonal aspects of individual athletes that affect sport injury outcomes (e.g., attitudes toward playing with pain), the spheres move out to the broader social networks through the microsystem or interpersonal sphere of sport relationships (e.g., coach expectations for toughness), the mesosystem or institutional sphere of sport organizations (e.g., the sport team’s medical services), the exosystem or community sphere of sport governing bodies (e.g., the league’s rules about injured reserves status), and the outermost sphere of the macrosystem or sport...
History of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology in North America Reference library
Vincent J. Granito
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
...a combination of observations from racing results from the Racing Board of the League of American Wheelman, and controlled laboratory experiments, where he investigated if people exhibited greater effort when in the presence of others ( Triplett, 1898 ). He concluded: “From the above facts regarding the laboratory races we infer that the bodily presence of another contestant participating simultaneously in the race serves to liberate latent energy not ordinarily available” ( Triplett, 1898 , p. 533). Recently, some have questioned the validity of this study...
Developing Athletes in the Context of Sport and Performance Psychology Reference library
Luc J. Martin, David J. Hancock, and Jean Côté
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
...social environment and developmental experiences in elite youth soccer. Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 13 , 390–396. Turnnidge, J. , Hancock, D. J. , & Côté, J. (2014). The influence of birth date and place of development on youth sport participation. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports , 24 , 461–468. United Nations . (2005). Report on the international year of sport and physical education, 2005 . Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office of Sport for Development and Peace. Ward, P. , Hodges, N. J. , Williams, A. M. , & Starkes...
Psychological Considerations for the Older Athlete Reference library
Bradley W. Young, Bettina Callary, and Scott Rathwell
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
...one’s training partners, one’s children, and peers in one’s sport community (i.e., in a league or club). By inspecting results across a broader body of work, it is possible to further understand the particular role of peers (nonsport and sport), family, and the coach in terms of their influence on various cohorts of adult athletes. Peers. Golding and Ungerleider ( 1991 ) discovered a positive association between MAs’ perceived social support from friends and frequency of training among 50-year-old runners. Elsewhere, MAs have described how their sport...
History of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology in Australia Reference library
Jeffrey Bond and Tony Morris
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
...among this group was a cluster of academics based at the University of Western Australia (UWA) that included Denis Glencross, Gerry Jones, and Geoff Watson. This group was very influential in the early years of Australian sport psychology, along with Colin Davey, who was based in Melbourne providing sport psychology support to local Australian Football League (AFL) teams. The findings of these psychological profiling exercises were given to the team coaches, along with advice about performance enhancement or selection of players. The instruments used were...
