Discipline and Punishment Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History
...oarsman. People convicted of desertion from the army as well as those convicted for theft, blasphemy, sacrilege, perjury, begging, vagabondage, falsehood in giving oaths, and unspecified reasons were sent to man galley oars. The galley did play a role in the history of the Counter-Reformation, and Protestants were exceptionally harshly treated in galleys, but historians have shown that conditions changed over time and that there were different circumstances and treatment for different types of oarsmen. In France and elsewhere in Europe , the use of galleys...
Motifs Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History
...subject of the visual arts. Woodcut illustrations in medieval postillae (commentaries) and Bibles usually show similar stereotyped boats (Göttlicher 1999 , figures 179–189). No great work of art took up the scene of Christ’s teaching from a boat. The sixteenth-century Counter-Reformation developed a unique version of the boat icon: ship-shaped pulpits, which can still be found in churches in Poland, Austria , and Germany . The original idea came from the ship iconography depicting the Battle of Lepanto ( 1571 ), in which a Christian fleet defeated a...
Wars, Maritime Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History
...with the outcome that they signed a separate peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1540 , effectively removing themselves from the conflict. This left the Ottomans in control of the Levant and free to attack into the Western Basin. At this time, Europe was being convulsed by the Reformation, and the Ottomans acerbated Spain’s problems by supplying arms and money to the Dutch. Also, Spain was continually distracted by the Italian wars ( 1494–1559 ) with France . From the beginning, France had been supplying Kheir ed-Din with artillery and supplies, and the...
Law Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History
...Navy—by then a full-time occupation. The separation of the court from the admiral worked the unintended consequence that the court no longer had the “protection” that naval and military interests had naturally given it. A better-known development under the Tudors—the English Reformation begun by Henry VIII and concluded by Elizabeth I —had correspondingly greater consequences. Henry had expected the faculties of canon law at Oxford and Cambridge to support him in his quest for divorce from Catherine of Aragon ; instead the great majority of the doctors...
Women's Royal Australian Air Force Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2 ed.)
...Royal Australian Air Force ( WRAAF ) was formed after cabinet approval was given to the re-formation of all three women's Services in July 1950 . Unlike its wartime predecessor, it was no longer to be regarded as an auxiliary service, and this was reflected in its title; the ‘Royal’ prefix was granted in November 1950 . Limited initially to an establishment of 30 officers and 832 other ranks, more than 2000 women applied to enlist. The first recruit courses commenced at Laverton, Victoria, and Richmond, New South Wales, in January 1951 . Training for...
religion and war Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...were heretics. After Martin Luther nailed his theses to a church door in 1520 , beginning the Reformation, the scene was set for new levels of barbarism. The Counter-Reformation—the Catholic reaction—got going in the 1560s, giving rise to orders like those to the Duke of Alba to kill every Protestant in the Netherlands and to the Massacre of St Bartholomew in France ( see French wars of religion ). The struggle between Reformation and Counter-Reformation was compounded by the strengthening of the nation state, and it is impossible to separate the two in...
Tukhachevskiy, Marshal Mikhail Nikolayevich (1893–1937) Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...forces' organization and technology. In the late 1920s Tukhachevskiy produced his massive study Future War ; in 1931–2 New Questions of War , which was not published until 1962 ; and also, in 1931 , the introduction to the Russian translation of J. F. C. Fuller's The Reformation of War ( 1923 ). In 1931 he became People's Commissar for Armaments, a post in which he was able to indulge his own inventiveness and passion for gadgets. His concept of ‘deep battle’ led him to sponsor the first large-scale experiments with paratroops, film of which made a...
Netherlands revolt (1567–1648) Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...prerogatives. For as long as imperial authority was exercised lightly, the only desire they had in common was to trade and enjoy steadily increasing prosperity. The Netherlands revolt and wars of religion in France. Under Philip II , self-appointed leader of the Counter-Reformation, the delicate balance of tacit religious toleration was disturbed, a process exacerbated by an outbreak of Calvinist iconoclasm in 1566 . The main figures in the early part of the revolt were the enigmatic William ‘the Silent’, whose diplomatic skill and tenacity more...
Just War Theory Reference library
James Turner Johnson and Timothy J. Lynch
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Military and Diplomatic History
...and that they not harm noncombatants (persons not directly involved in the waging of war). Reflected in the theoretical works of Vitoria, Suarez, Gentili, and Grotius, as well as in Shakespeare's Henry V , this concept of just war informed apologists on both sides of the post-Reformation wars, as well as the early codes of military discipline. In the modern era, just war tradition developed along several distinct streams of thought and practice. For example, international law developed from naturalists like Vitoria and Grotius, seeking to institutionalize just...
Thirty Years War (1618–48) Reference library
The Oxford Companion to Military History
...Years War ( 1618–48 ). The Thirty Years War had its roots in the dynastic and imperial ambitions of the house of Habsburg and its leadership in the Counter-Reformation. For the rest, the religious aspects should not be overstated because princes would readily trade religious conviction for political advantage; Catholic France in particular was eager to support Protestant states against the Habsburgs. By the beginning of the 17th century there was parity between the faiths among the small principalities that made up Germany. Of the larger states, three of...
Orders, Military Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology
...Polish suzerainty in the territories that had not been conquered by the Poles. In Livonia the brethren faced the rising military power of Moscow, resulting in a number of wars throughout the fifteenth century that ravaged great parts of Livonia. Following the events of the Reformation in the early sixteenth century, the Teutonic Knights in both Prussia and Livonia were secularized in 1525 and 1561 , respectively. [ See also Alexander Nevsky ; Baltics , subentry on Narrative (1300–1500) ; Grunwald, Battle of ; Peipus, Battle of Lake ; Saule,...
Crusades Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology
...fascinated by the interplay between this international institution and the rising states of England and France, were often preoccupied by such issues and, of course, by the Avignon papacy and the subsequent papal schism, which seemed to prepare the way for the Protestant Reformation. And crusading itself became more and more bound with general diplomatic history and more difficult to discern as a distinct concern. Thus the papacy after 1266 was caught up in its alliance with Charles of Anjou, ruler of Sicily and southern Italy, and ultimately backed his...
land power Reference library
Charles Messenger
The Oxford Companion to World War II
...dangerously extended, both in front of Moscow and at Rostov, gateway to the Caucasus, and they lacked the clothing and other means to combat the severe Russian winter. The Soviets took advantage of this and their successful counter-attacks in front of Moscow and at Rostov marked the beginnings of the reorganized Red Army. This reformation was reinforced during the summer 1942 campaign in the south when instead of allowing themselves to be surrounded the Soviet fronts (army groups) withdrew in the face of the German thrusts. Stalingrad , besides being the...
