Secularization Reference library
Vincent P. Pecora
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...that soon occurred in many other languages. German princes adopted Luther's reforms, primarily for political reasons, and they spread quickly—often with much violence—in various mutations to Switzerland (with John Calvin ), Scotland (with John Knox ), and Holland. Counter-Reformation Catholicism in Spain and France fiercely opposed the schism. All of this followed fifteenth-century Renaissance humanism's encounter with classical (especially Platonic) learning, and the late fifteenth-century voyages of discovery, which enlarged the world of belief and...
Bavaria Reference library
JaromÍr Balcar
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...of east central Europe, which deepened Christianity among the Bavarian population, and established close links between the rulers and the church. During the Wars of Religion, the dukes, drawn since 1180 from the house of Wittelsbach, made the duchy a center of the Counter-Reformation. In recognition for his military role during the Thirty Years' War, Duke Maximilian I was elevated to be an elector of the empire. Modern Bavaria emerged only in the Napoleonic era. In the course of the collapse of the empire, the duchy acquired large territories in...
Deng Xiaoping (22 Aug. 1904) Quick reference
A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (6 ed.)
...1976 , Deng worked as the deputy to the ailing Premier Zhou Enlai , who saw Deng as a crucial counter-balance to the radical Maoist Gang of Four. The extent to which Deng owed his position to Zhou's patronage became clear in 1976 . Once Zhou died in February, the left moved to oust Deng. When a spontaneous mass demonstration occurred in Tiananmen Square in April in support of Zhou (and by implication Deng), Deng was accused of orchestrating a counter-revolutionary movement. The demonstration was brutally suppressed, and for a second time in ten years,...
Religion and Politics Reference library
Gordon C. Thomasson
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...point of beginning in the second half of the eighteenth century. The invention of the printing press and its use, including vernacular Bible translations, added to the split of Anglicanism from Rome and then became a major force in the European Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation (after 1520 ). Following the publication of the Authorized or “King James” Bible ( 1611–1612 ), and even more dramatically during the English civil war ( 1641–1660 ) and the creation of the English Bill of Rights and the Toleration Act of 1689 , the...
Japan Quick reference
A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (6 ed.)
...Instead, the LDP was concerned with its own corruption scandals and the continued survival of its entrenched elites, while the Socialist Party and the Communist Party suffered from the challenges of political powerlessness and ideological renewal. This led to a reformation of the party system, and the formation of the New Kōmeitō and the Democratic Party of Japan . The LDP was revived by the long premiership of Koizumi , who led the party to a spectacular election victory in 2005 . By this time, Japan had managed to return to economic growth...
Catholicism Reference library
Timothy Kelly and Virginia Garrard-Burnett
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...Theology ; Missions, Christian ; Opus Dei ; Papacy ; Papal Infallibility ; Vatican I ; and Vatican II . ] Overview Catholicism arrived at the modern period in an embattled state. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Catholic Church had been through the Reformation, the Counter-Reformation, the powerful Scientific Revolution, and the broader Enlightenment. It encountered political revolutions that portended great change. Roman curial officials initially responded to this by adopting a siege position, strongly resisting these manifestations of a...
Anarchism Reference library
David Goodway
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
... (4th century b.c.e. ) as well as to classical Greece and Zeno of Citium ( c. 335–c. 263 b.c.e. ). Most recently, it has been argued convincingly that the Mu’tazilite and Najdite Muslims of ninth-century Basra were anarchists. Examples begin to multiply in Europe from the Reformation of the sixteenth century and its forebears (for example, the Bohemian Taborites and German Anabaptists) and the Renaissance (François Rabelais and Étienne de La Boétie) and English Revolution (not only the Diggers and Gerrard Winstanley but also the Ranters) in the sixteenth...
Fundamentalism Reference library
Kathryn Lofton and Kathryn Lofton
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...Islam, “tradition” refers to the accumulated body of interpretation and practice developed over the centuries by the ᾽ulema, the learned men who constitute Islam's clerical class. Throughout Islamic history there have been reformers who challenged the authority of the ᾽ulema; reformation is a hallmark of every global religious tradition. What differentiates contemporary contestations of the ᾽ulema with those of previous centuries is the deconstruction of a particularly modern consensus about the productivity of liberal societies and free market economies. What...
Universities Reference library
Yves Laberge, Charles R. Day, Hans Martin KrÄmer, and Claudio Rama
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...rediscovery of the heritage of ancient Greece through the translation of Greek and Islamic texts into Latin and were instrumental in the creation of the high medieval synthesis of Greek and Arabic learning and of the Christian philosophy known as Scholasticism. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation, combined with the growth of the territorial state during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, encouraged the establishment of universities, notably one at Leiden in Holland, nine in Germany, and seventeen in Castille (from 1474 to 1620 ). Indeed, many religious...
Nationalism Reference library
Clifton C. Crais, Thomas Turner, David A. Campion, and Sandra Wilson
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...continue to debate how far back the roots of nationalism stretch, but Irish nationalists often trace their struggle against foreign rule as far back as the Anglo-Norman settlements in the Pale—the area around Dublin—of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation exacerbated political and social divisions in Ireland, as religious differences often pitted a powerful Protestant minority against the disenfranchised Catholic majority and served to define among each a sense of ethnic and social distinctiveness, mostly in...
Conservatism Reference library
Axel Schildt, Richmond F. Brown, and Marc Allen Eisner
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...and English House of Commons politician Edmund Burke ( 1729–1797 ). His book was translated into numerous languages, taking the Continent by storm. Significant was his postulate that, in order to avoid a revolution, there needed to be a balance between conservation and reformation, which Burke saw embodied in English parliamentarianism. The German translation was provided in 1793 by the Prussian diplomat and writer Friedrich Gentz ( 1764–1832 ), who also had close connections to French conservative politicians in exile. Even Gentz, who later became...
Russia, the Russian Empire, and the Soviet Union Reference library
Hugh Ragsdale
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...inadvertently became serious handicaps. The tradition of Orthodoxy and the liturgical use of an antiquated vernacular—Old Church Slavonic—along with a conservative xenophobia, denied Russia participation in the progressive developments of western Europe, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and much of the Enlightenment. The Russian outlook on life was more mystical, otherworldly, and static—and hence less progressive and developmental—than that of the European West. 2. The Russian strategic situation was unusually exposed, dangerous,...
Religion in the American City, 1600–1900 Reference library
Kyle B. Roberts
The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History
...to bind urban residents in a public ritual that reinforced their sense of being a singular people, a uniquely Christian nation favored by God. As defeats and losses mounted, Richmond’s secular press openly questioned the jeremiad’s strategy of public humiliation and moral reformation to gain God’s favor. In response, the religious press pushed a revitalized model of southern spirituality that tied an emphasis on individual salvation with the sanctification of being a chosen nation. Out of this mix emerged the curious hybrid known as the Lost Cause, a set of...
Empire and Imperialism Reference library
Heather Streets, John E. Kicza, John P. Cann, Wim van den Doel, Aaron D. Whelchel, Patricia M. E. Lorcin, G. N. Uzoigwe, Erik Grimmer-Solem, Kirk W. Larsen, and Christopher A. Conte
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...disparity between white and black was obvious and inspired calls for more protection of African land rights. Eventually, under the leadership of Africans like Jomo Kenyatta, disparate labor strikes and riots coalesced into nationalist movements demanding not just the gradual reformation of British administrative policies but outright independence. In Kenya, this culminated in the Mau Mau Uprising of 1952 . In Burma and Malaya as well, nationalist movements formed. Various nationalist groups in Burma had different agendas, but they were all in agreement in...
