Churches in Context: The Jesus Movement in the Roman World Reference library
Daniel N. Schowalter
Oxford History of the Biblical World
...Judaism began to develop in new directions under rabbinic leadership. Meanwhile, the churches continued to attract mostly Gentiles. Ten years later, after Titus's death in 81 ce , the churches and Judaism were evolving differently, but they both faced new challenges under the repressive policies of Vespasian's other son, Domitian. A Younger Brother's Revenge: The Reign of Domitian Many Romans greeted the accession of Domitian...
Baʿth Parties Reference library
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
... the Baʿth consistently reaffirmed the domination of politics over religion. Although the Baʿthist party was obviously the major actor in Syrian and Iraqi politics at least until the last years of the twentieth century, proponents of its ideology (if not of the symbol of repressive rule associated with the persons of Assad and Hussein) attempted over the years to play a role in other political systems, most notably in Jordan and Lebanon. Specific characteristics governing the politics of other Arab countries, however, reduced this to a minor role when...
Enlightenment Reference library
Thomas E. Kaiser
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...and central Europe were far more profoundly touched by the Enlightenment than eastern Europe, where the middle-class public was much smaller and intellectuals remained more dependent on the state and the church. In Russia under Catherine II (Catherine the Great; 1729–1796 ; r. 1762–1796 ), the Enlightenment served to reinforce the state's repressive apparatus more than it did to lighten the burden of the serfs. After 1789 , the Enlightenment became inextricably associated with the outbreak of revolution. It is probable that the philosophes had...
Spain Reference library
David Ortiz
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...founded Opus Dei (God's Work), an organization dedicated to restoring religious influence in state and society. Opus Dei became so influential that Pope Pius XII made it the first secular institute of the Catholic Church in 1947 . After World War II, the Western powers blocked Spanish participation in the United Nations, and Spain was denied Marshall Plan funds. As a result the 1940s were known as the “years of hunger” as Spaniards struggled to adjust to a repressive dictatorship and recover from devastating warfare. But the Cold War changed the world's view...
Colonial Rule and Its Political Legacies in Africa Reference library
Amanda Lea Robinson
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Politics
...violent resistance and raising enough revenue to be self-sufficient. In response to these aims, the colonial state was primarily repressive, coercive, and extractive ( Young, 1994 ), at least in the majority of colonies, which lacked significant numbers of European settlers ( Acemoglu, Johnson, & Robinson, 2001 ). Prior to the last few decades of colonial rule, few rights or services were extended to African populations by the colonial state. Education and health services that were available tended to be provided by Christian missions, only loosely...
Austria Reference library
Steven Beller
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...a large-scale reform effort to turn Austria into a modern state, along the rationalist and centralized lines of Austria's northern neighbor and rival, Prussia. Although Maria Theresa was herself religiously conservative, she had a strong practical side, and she recognized the need to modernize the Habsburg Monarchy. For her and her advisers this meant adopting the policies of what has come to be known as “enlightened absolutism.” This involved the ruling house's creating a rational state apparatus that directly ruled and educated its subjects, rather than...
Challenges to Educational Leadership and Equity in México Reference library
Marta Sánchez
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Educational Administration
...1). In México, the press for standardized teacher evaluations backfired, even with, or perhaps because of, the use of state confrontation and force to compel teachers to participate in the evaluation ( Figure 4 ). The SNTE and the CNTE present competing understandings of what the relationship between schools, communities, and society should be and what leadership means. The SNTE is vested in party politics and ideologies of the state apparatus that perpetuate profound inequalities within Mexican society. At the same time, the SNTE’s ability exponentially to...
Uruguay: No Country for a Military? Reference library
David Altman and Nicole Jenne
Oxford Encyclopedia of the Military in Politics
...Uruguay: No Country for a Military? Introduction For Uruguay, a small state sandwiched between South America’s two largest countries, Brazil and Argentina, it has never been a practical option to rely on the military in order to guarantee its national security. Consequently, the military as an institution has played a relatively minor role within the state apparatus where it has been subject to civilian control. The only notable exception was the military dictatorship that lasted from 1973 to 1985 , the period that has sparked the largest number of...
SS Reference library
Bernd Wegner
The Oxford Companion to World War II
...each state had during the Weimar Republic to defend the constitution against politically motivated attacks. In Prussia this department developed in 1933 into the Gestapo . ) After another two years he controlled the police apparatus as a whole and on 17 June 1936 was given the title ‘Reichsführer-SS and Head of the German Police’. In the following years, step by step, the police forces were integrated into the administrative structure of the SS. This process, the aim of which was the complete amalgamation of both organizations into a gigantic state...
Bureaucracy in Latin America Reference library
John Polga-Hecimovich
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Latin American Politics
...”) traces the development and evolution of Latin American bureaucracies, with a focus on public sector employment, the role of the state, and distinctive characteristics of the region’s administrative apparatus (e.g., the ubiquity of state-owned enterprises). Although the bureaucracy and the state are conceptually distinct, the public bureaucracy contributes to the development of and is a central manifestation of the state and state power, and here and elsewhere reference is made to each of them. The second section (“ The Quality of Latin American Bureaucracies...
Changing Patterns of Political Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa Reference library
Kate M. Carter and Scott Straus
The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Politics
...(2016, p. 37) who distinguishes coups from civil wars in that coups “can be distinguished … by their organizational basis. Coup conspirators leverage partial control of the state (and the resources and materiel that come with access to the state) in their bid to capture political power … a coup ‘consists of the infiltration of a small, but critical, segment of the state apparatus, which is then used to displace the government from its control of the remainder.’ In contrast, rebels or insurgents lack such access and have to build a private military...
Proxy Wars: Implications of Great-Power Rivalry for the Onset and Duration of Civil War Reference library
Indra de Soysa
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Empirical International Relations Theory
...as a motivation for war, others pointed out that what matters is state capacity because a civil war exists only due to a state’s loss of monopoly over the use of force. Poverty, captured by income per capita, proxies a weak state because it limits the amount of taxes that allows a state to be administratively efficient. Weak states, thus, are easily targeted by armed groups because of the technology of insurgency, which favors small bands of lightly armed groups against (dis)organized state forces ( Fearon & Laitin, 2003 ). Rather than simply the...
The Global Comparative Study of Gangs and Other Non-State Armed Groups Reference library
Nicholas Barnes
The Oxford Encyclopedia of International Criminology
...an insurgency encourages even more violent and repressive policy responses that are not only misguided but, in many cases, have only served to strengthen gangs or exacerbate violence ( Cruz, 2010 ; Lessing, 2012 , 2017 ; Phillips, 2015 ). Leaving the comparison to terrorism and insurgency aside, Hagedorn and other scholars have suggested that drug trafficking cartels and many other criminal organizations may also be considered gangs. It is well documented that Mexican and Colombian drug trafficking cartels have been known to recruit gang members and can include...
Film Reference library
Luca Prono, Tan Ye, Aaron Gerow, Prajna Paramita Parasher, Luisela Alvaray, Magdy El-Shammaa, and Shanny Luft
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...that had experienced revolutions, such as Cuba and other Latin American countries, documentaries and realistic fictions became the predominant mode. However, this politicization of cinema was soon replaced by more commercial productions as many revolutions failed or became repressive dictatorships in turn. Between the 1970s and the late 1980s, television and the growth of the home-video market led to a dramatic decline in cinema patronage. The hegemony of the United States after the fall of Soviet Communism is paralleled by the predominance of Hollywood in...
Vietnam Reference library
Jessica M. Chapman
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World
...French subsidies, making it possible for South Vietnam's National Army to defeat their armed forces during the “sect crisis” of April 1955 . In October 1955 , Diem held a referendum to depose Bao Dai as chief of state, after which he proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam ( RVN ) with himself as president. Diem and his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu's repressive, often pro-Catholic policies stirred up the ire of South Vietnamese citizens. The Strategic Hamlet Program displaced thousands of peasant farmers from their ancestral lands, and the RVN's persecution of the...
Italian Social Psychologies and Fascist Regimes: History of a Collective Removal Reference library
Gilda Sensales
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of Modern Psychology
...Galimi, 2014 ; Toscano, 2015 ). As stated by Valeria Galimi ( 2014 ) , this rethinking led to overcoming the approach supported by Renzo De Felice, the historian of fascism, who tended to distinguish the responsibilities of fascism from those of Nazism ( De Felice, 1981 ). The distinction absolved fascism with respect to racial persecution. On the contrary, studies have subsequently affirmed that the racial policy begun in 1936 by the fascist regime was autonomous from the German one and was accompanied by repressive and persecutory measures that...
United States Law Reference library
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History
...corporations chartered in one state could conduct business in any state unless that state specifically prohibited out-of-state corporations from doing so. This helped pave the way toward the development of a national market. After the Civil War, and the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, states were no longer able to prohibit out-of-state corporations from doing business in their jurisdictions—except in the case of banks and insurance companies, where Congress specifically granted the states the power to restrict out-of-state corporations. Indeed, late in...
Nationalism Reference library
Uma Chakravarti, Margaret Power, and Mrinalini Sinha
The Oxford Encyclopedia Women in World History
...opposition to an existing state. In this view the movement is defined in relation to the state, whose transformation in one form or the other is the goal of the movement. However, a purely state‐centric understanding misses that nationalist movements in much of the colonized and semicolonized parts of the world followed a different trajectory. Long before seeking state power, anticolonial nationalisms were elaborated and mobilized in the cultural sphere. A strictly political classification based on the acquisition of state power alone thus elides the...
Collective Protest, Rioting, and Aggression Reference library
Stephen Reicher
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Intergroup Communication
...gunfire, slogans that articulated a division between the Polish people and the Soviets were more widely chanted and replaced other slogans that were structured around domestic economic demands. This anti-Sovietism in turn strengthened the hand of those more repressive elements in the security apparatus. To use a somewhat different example, when the Poles demonstrated again in October 1956 , and in as large numbers as in Hungary, the reason why Poland (unlike Hungary) did not see an insurrection is that the Polish regime replaced the old Communist Party leadership...
Politics of Vision in the Carceral State: Legibility and Looking in Hostile Territory Reference library
Ashley Hunt
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Crime, Media, and Popular Culture
...1986 ). Moving from the camera to the prison, through its own production of legibilities, the prison acts not only as a means of physical containment but as a visual apparatus, investing the sensible fabric around us with its sense of order. It produces knowledge of things, but it also erases, conceals, renders unseeable what physically lies in plain sight. As with Scott’s “seeing” of the state, Sekula’s police photography and Hall’s news image, the prison’s legibilities disavow the injuries of history and the prison’s own effects, cleaving humanity and agency...
