Oxford Reference Search Results

Frontier, Backlands, and Indigenous Presence in Colonial São Paulo   Reference library

José Carlos Vilardaga

Oxford Encyclopedia of Brazilian History and Culture

...the traditional view of the backwoodsman. 61 During the 1960s and 1970s, structuralist analyses of Brazilian colonial history sidelined São Paulo from large-scale general interpretations, believing its subsistence economy was of little relevance to the broad framework of systemic explanations. Beginning in the 1970s, however, a few studies grounded in innovative demographic and quantitative research mapped the Paulista economy, gradually tracing the city’s relations with other colonial areas. 62 Since the end of the 20th century , works that pay greater...

Education   Reference library

Rebecca Rogers, Rebecca Rogers, Rebecca Rogers, and Carol O. Perkins

The Oxford Encyclopedia Women in World History

...• The 1976 amendments to the Vocational Education Act of 1963 require states to act affirmatively to eliminate sex bias, stereotyping, and discrimination in vocational education. • Affirmative action legislation from the 1970s has provided means by which institutionalized, systemic discrimination based on sex, race, age, and ability could be redressed. The university was from the beginning a male institution and found it comfortable to rationalize the exclusion of women, but not to remedy the discrimination against them. Affirmative action is an active...

Barbarians   Reference library

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome

...themselves. [ See also Propaganda, Roman .] Bibliography Cohen, Beth , ed. Not the Classical Ideal: Athens and the Construction of the Other in Greek Art . Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000. Contains several articles on “others” in Archaic and Classical Attic art. Ferris, I. M. Enemies of Rome: Barbarians through Roman Eyes . Stroud, U.K.: Sutton, 2000. A chronological study of barbarians in imperial art. Marszal, John . “Ubiquitous Barbarians: Representations of the Gauls at Pergamon and Elsewhere.” In Pergamon to Sperlonga: Sculpture and Context ,...

Egypt   Reference library

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome

...instability and eventual conquest both by Nubian kings from the south and by the Assyrians. It was during the Saite Period (Twenty-sixth Dynasty, 664–525 ) that the Egyptian rulers began significant contacts with the Aegean world. Psammetichus I ( r. 664–610 ) began several systemic practices that affected Egypt for the next millennium. The first was the introduction of Greek and other mercenaries into Egypt. These included Jewish mercenaries who established a colony at Syene (modern Aswan). The main mercenary group was the Carians, stationed mostly in the...

Violence   Reference library

Black Women in America (2 ed.)

...most black women are resilient and use a variety of strategies to survive the violence in their lives. Although examining individual risk factors can provide some insight, the violence experienced by African American women has deep historical roots. It has been brutal, systemic, and institutionalized. Black women have faced, and continue to deal with, battery, rape, and other forms of sexual violence, while police brutality, community violence, and mass incarceration continue to claim the lives of African American men and boys. Roots in Slavery...

economic and social history   Reference library

The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages

...Yet war also offered plunder and ransom, artificial comparative advantages for those less affected, and opportunities—even though perhaps more fraught with risk—for those profitably involved in supplying armies and garrisons, or in restoring ‘normalcy’. Up to a certain level of systemic damage, war could be an agent of ‘creative destruction’, and there were those who profited from rebuilding needs and from distorted patterns or volumes of demand. Where the balance lay between loss and profit has not been plausibly determined. Even where documentation is...

China   Reference library

R. Keith Schoppa

The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World

...political action, and that further changes would follow once the political system was changed. Others contended that any meaningful political change could be built only upon cultural change—an effort more evolutionary than revolutionary. This group attacked isms—overarching systemic blueprints that offered a holistic way out of China's predicament—and favored instead specific solutions to specific problems. After 1919 the question became how to build national power as quickly as possible so as to forestall continuing national humiliation and perhaps...

Evidence   Reference library

The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History

...of the attempted assassination of President Reagan, or Supreme Court rulings, such as the decisions in the Daubert trilogy (discussed below) regarding the standard for receiving expert testimony. However, in the main, the rules have remained largely stable and further systemic reform has not occurred, although cumulatively a substantial number of amendments have been made over the years. Key Supreme Court Decisions in Evidence Law. When it interprets the U.S. Constitution, the Supreme Court is preeminent. Sitting atop the federal system, it also can...

Education   Reference library

Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass

...often unequal, black institutions. In the end, early African Americans were largely responsible for their own literary improvement. Between 1619 and 1830 people of color throughout the nation opened and sustained countless private educational institutions. Withstanding systemic neglect and occasional violent opposition, African Americans crafted, funded, and managed their own schools, and with that responsibility came freedom and autonomy. Colonization to Revolution While antebellum whites, southern and northern, often considered black literacy to be...

African Law, Sub-Saharan   Reference library

The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History

...in place at independence have survived intact, but most states have maintained a remarkable degree of continuity in basic legal and judicial systems, continuing legacies of colonial rule. African states are therefore often described as having typical postcolonial structures of systemic legal pluralism, in which laws of diverse origins operate in uneasy coexistence, as separate and distinct layers in national legal cakes. Yet in the contemporary world most national legal systems have some elements of plurality, adding to their basic laws rules of international...

Exploring Present Pasts: Popular Arts as Historical Sources   Reference library

Bogumil Jewsiewicki and Allen F. Roberts

The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Historiography: Methods and Sources

...artistic productions and practices give access to knowledge of pasts as understood locally. Display of such expression is a political act, often vividly debated and contested. As with any system of conservation and management of information, art as an artifactual system of memory should be approached taking systemic singularities into consideration while possessing local knowledge necessary for its interpretation. Primary Sources With very few exceptions such as the District Six Museum of Cape Town , we know of no public collections of earlier or recent s...

Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Precolonial Sub-Saharan African Farming and Herding Communities   Reference library

Paul Lane and Anna Shoemaker

The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Historiography: Methods and Sources

... 5b ). 69 Figure 5a. Example of Saharan and northeast African pastoralist rock art, showing an engraved milking scene, Tikastin, Messak Plateau, Libya. Line drawing by Victoria Waldock, 2009. Figure 5b. Example of Saharan and northeast African pastoralist rock art, showing a cattle herd, Laas Geel rock shelter, northern Somalia. Photo by Jorge de Torres, 2015. This art has been subject to multiple interpretations, and debate over the chronology of much of the art remains unresolved. Despite this, recent analyses do highlight the potential to infer...

Stone Tools: Their Relevance for Historians and the Study of Historical Processes   Reference library

Justin Pargeter

The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Historiography: Methods and Sources

...industries and other archaeologically constructed entities. 33 Research in the mid- 20th century focused on categorical variation among stone tools, their assemblage structure, and sources of change and variability. 34 Later 20th-century research placed increasing focus on systemic relationships among components of culture as seen through material traces—reflecting the rising use of systems thinking in behavior sciences. 35 Following these trends, since the 1970s stone-tool analyses have increasingly sought to measure behavioral variability through...

Boris Ananiev’s Theory of Self-Determination of Human Development   Reference library

Irina A. Mironenko

The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of Modern Psychology

...refers, and even going beyond the scope of this particular group of phenomena where it was observed and assessed. ( Vygotsky, 1927 ) Ananiev is featured by his intention to keep a holistic vision of a human being, considering the latter in the context of his real life, as the systemic unity of the bodily substrate in its biological specificity and the concrete sociohistorical life course of the personality. Like no other psychologist, Ananiev did not limit his research to the sphere of narrowly defined mental phenomena. He conducted a special kind of...

Community-based Approaches to African History   Reference library

Peter R. Schmidt and Kathryn Weedman Arthur

The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Historiography: Methods and Sources

...and G. Mvenge, “Archaeologists, Tourists and Rainmakers: Problems in the Management of Rock Art Sites in Zimbabwe, a Case Study of Domboshava National Monument,” in Aspects of African Archaeology , ed. Pwiti and R. Soper (Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1996), 817–824; P. Taruvinga, “Community Participation and Rock Art Management in Zimbabwe,” in African Rock Art: The Future of Africa’s Past , ed. J. Deacon (Nairobi, Kenya: Trust for African Rock Art), 39–48; and I. Pikirayi, “Public Involvement in Archaeological Excavations in Southern...

Italy   Reference library

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology

...attempts were made to evaluate the forces at the disposal of various states—to analyze the training, equipment, and motivation, and to examine the state of fortresses—in sum, to analyze the weak points of the defensive apparatuses of both allies and rivals. For the first time, a systemic mass of information of this type was made available to scholars. The largest documentary cache of this type, starting in 1450 , the Sforzesco collection, is conserved at the state archive of Milan. Also important is the correspondence of the dukes of Mantua and Ferrara, as well...

Lǔ Xùn (1881–1936)   Reference library

Eileen J. CHENG

The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography

...the miserable conditions around them. Hypocritical, weak, and lacking the capacity for self-reflection, his intellectual protagonists are depicted as unreliable narrators prone to wishful thinking, creating hopeful scenarios of the future and turning a blind eye to the systemic inequities before them. The uniformly pessimistic tone of Lu Xun short stories are unlikely manifestos for “changing people’s spirits.” Rather, they reveal the persistence of the most oppressive aspects of traditional culture, the predatory nature of humans, and the difficult...

The Great Depression   Reference library

Erik Gellman and Margaret Rung

The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History

...Public Works Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Tennessee Valley Authority, and Works Progress Administration (WPA), provided employment as well as useful products. 18 Other policies targeting banking and housing addressed immediate needs and deeper systemic problems within these sectors. The establishment of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) in 1933 , for instance, protected depositors and bolstered overall confidence in banks. Government mortgage assistance through the Home Owners Loan Corporation ( 1933 ) and...

Industry, Commerce, and Urbanization in the United States, 1790–1870   Reference library

David Schley

The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Urban History

...who suspended specie payments argued that they had no choice, that conditions beyond their control led them to act as they did. Americans continued to blame high-level political figures along partisan lines, but they did not by and large blame themselves, pointing instead to systemic failures. 38 The ability to conceive of economic calamities in systematic terms reflected the degree to which urbanization, industrialization, and market integration bound places and people together. Yet individualistic explanations of poverty —the craft entrepreneurs’...