Wars and Revolutions

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Timeline: Wars and Revolutions

Years: c. 545 BCE - 1866	Subject: History, Military History
Publisher: HistoryWorld	Online Publication Date: 2012
Current online version: 2012	eISBN: 9780191737725

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BCE CE

Year	Event
c. 545 BCE	Cyrus annexes the Greek territory of Ionia as part of his empire, giving Persia a presence on the Aegean Go to Cyrus in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Europe Greece
499 BCE	The Greek cities of Ionia rebel against Persian rule, with the partial support of Athens Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Greece
493 BCE	After six years the Persians recover control of Ionia, but Athens is now identified as a target for invasion Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Europe Greece
490 BCE	Darius sends a fleet across the Aegean, carrying a large army of infantry and cavalry for an attack on Athens Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Europe Greece The Persian fleet secures the Greek island of Euboea before making the short crossing to Marathon on the mainland – where they await the Greeks Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Europe Greece Pheidippides, given the task of running from Athens to Sparta to request help against the Persians, completes the journey in two days Go to Pheidippides in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens Travel and transport War Europe Greece Society At Marathon the Athenian hoplites, heavily outnumbered, win a spectacular victory against the Persians – of whom the survivors escape in their ships Go to Marathon, battle of in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece The Persian fleet moves south towards Athens, but then heads home across the Aegean without attempting an assault on the city Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey
483 BCE	Themistocles persuades the Athenians to build up their fleet against the expected renewal of the threat from Persia Go to Themistocles (c. 528–462 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece
481 BCE	Xerxes I, renewing the campaign of his father Darius against the Greeks, leads a large army round the Aegean and through Thrace Go to Xerxes I in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Greece The Greek city-states meet in Corinth to devise a joint strategy against the Persians Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Politics War Europe Greece
480 BCE	300 Spartans, led by Leonidas, die attempting to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the advancing Persian army Go to Leonidas (480 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Europe Greece Athens, abandoned to the advancing Persians, is looted and destroyed Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece The Athenian fleet defeats a considerably larger Persian force in the narrow strait between Salamis and the mainland Go to Salamis, Battle of (480 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Europe Greece
479 BCE	A Spartan army, led by Pausanias, wins a victory at Plataea, completing the rout of the Persians on the Greek mainland Go to Plataea, battle of (479 bc) in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Europe Greece An Athenian force destroys at Mykale the remainder of the Persian fleet, ending the threat from them at sea Go to My'calē in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece
478 BCE	In the last joint campaign by Sparta and Athens the strategically important city of Byzantium is liberated from Persian rule Go to Byzantium in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Turkey Europe Representatives of Athens and other Aegean city-states meet in Delos to form a coalition, later known as the Delian League Go to Delian League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens Politics War Europe Greece The Delian League is formed for mutual defence, but also to liberate the Greek cities of Ionia from Persian rule Go to Delian League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens Politics War Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Greece
c. 466 BCE	The Athenian general Cimon wins a spectacular victory over the Persians at the mouth of the Eurymedon River, in southwest Turkey Go to Cīmon (c.510–c.450 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars War Asia West Asia Turkey
c. 460 BCE	Herodotus, the 'father of history', writes his account of the Greco-Persian Wars from a vantage point in Asia Minor Go to Herodotus (c. 490–c. 425 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Greco-Persian Wars Literature War Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Greece Simmering hostilities between the allies of Sparta and Athens develop into endemic conflict among the Greek city states of the Peloponnese Go to Peloponne'sian War, First in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece Forces of the Delian League assist the Egyptians in a successful revolt against their Persian rulers Go to Delian League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Politics Protest and rebellion War Africa North Africa Egypt
454 BCE	The Greeks suffer a major reverse when their fleet is trapped on the Nile and destroyed by the Persians Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars War Africa North Africa Egypt
450 BCE	The Athenians mount successful attacks on the Persian forces occupying the Greek island of Cyprus Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars War Europe
448 BCE	In the Peace of Kallias the Persians acknowledge the independence of Greek Ionia, and agree not to bring their fleet into the Aegean Go to Callias, Peace of in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Politics War Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Greece
446 BCE	Pericles negotiates a treaty, scheduled to hold for thirty years, establishing spheres of influence for Sparta (the mainland) and Athens (the Aegean coast and islands) Go to Thirty Years Peace in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens Politics War Europe Greece
431 BCE	A sudden attack on Plataea (an ally of Athens) by Thebes (an ally of Sparta) begins the Second Peloponnesian War Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece The renewal of the Peloponnesian War prompts Thucydides to begin a great work of contemporary history Go to Thucydides (c.460/455–c.400 bc) in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Peloponnesian Wars Literature War Europe Greece
430 BCE	A plague strikes Athens in the second year of the Peloponnesian War Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece
427 BCE	Athenians vote to kill all the men on the captured island of Mytilene, but the next day change their mind - almost too late Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece
416 BCE	The Athenians, capturing Melos, kill all the males of the island and sell the women and children into slavery Go to Mēlos in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens Politics Conquest and colonization Slavery War Europe Greece Society
414 BCE	The Persians, renewing their interest in the Aegean, fund the Spartans in the building of a fleet to match that of Athens Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Europe Greece
405 BCE	The last remaining Athenian fleet is surprised and destroyed by the Spartans in the Hellespont Go to Aegospotami, Battle of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Europe Greece
404 BCE	The famous Long Walls of Athens, her impregnable defence, are dismantled by the Spartans in the final act of the Peloponnesian War Go to Long Walls in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Europe Greece
264 BCE	A clash in Sicily, between Rome and Carthage, leads to the First Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Rome Sicily Africa North Africa Europe Greece Italy
260 BCE	A Carthaginian quinquereme, captured by the Romans, is used as the model for the first Roman fleet - constructed in two months Go to quinquereme in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Europe Greece Italy The new Roman fleet wins a decisive victory over the Carthaginians at Mylae, thanks largely to the 'raven' (corvus in Latin) Go to quinquereme in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Europe Italy
241 BCE	A Roman naval victory at Trapani, off the northwest tip of Sicily, completes the blockade of the Carthaginians and ends the First Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Sicily Africa North Africa Europe Greece Italy At the end of the First Punic War, Sicily becomes Rome's first overseas province Go to Sicily in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Sicily Europe Greece Italy
c. 240 BCE	Spain, with its mines of gold, silver and copper, is a hotly disputed region between Carthage and Rome Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Europe Spain
228 BCE	Hamilcar Barca dies fighting in Spain, after establishing a strong Carthaginian presence in the peninsula Go to Hamilcar Barca (c.229 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Europe Spain
227 BCE	Sardinia and Corsica are annexed by Rome, becoming the second Roman overseas province Go to Sardinia in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Europe Greece Italy
c. 225 BCE	A treaty defines the Ebro river as the Spanish boundary between Carthage and Rome Go to Hasdrubal(1) in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics War Europe Spain
221 BCE	Hannibal succeeds to the command of the Carthaginian forces in Spain, on the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal Go to Hannibal (c.247–c.183 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Europe Spain
218 BCE	Hannibal crosses the Alps with his elephants, beginning the Second Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Europe Greece Italy
217 BCE	Hannibal surprises and traps a Roman army on a narrow plain beside Lake Trasimene Go to Lake Trasimene, battle of (217 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Europe Italy
216 BCE	Hannibal destroys a Roman army at Cannae, in the most severe defeat ever suffered by Rome Go to Cannae, Battle of (216 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Europe Greece Italy
202 BCE	Hannibal suffers his first decisive defeat by a Roman army, at an unidentified site in north Africa called Zama Go to Zama, battle of in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Africa North Africa Greece
201 BCE	Carthaginian Spain is handed over to Rome to become two new provinces, at the end of the Second Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Rome Europe Greece Spain
149 BCE	Rome picks a quarrel with Carthage to begin the Third Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Europe Greece Italy
146 BCE	Carthage is destroyed by the Romans at the end of the Third Punic War Go to Carthage in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Europe Greece Italy
1095	Pope Urban II preaches the first crusade, urging the Christians of Europe to march east to recover Jerusalem from the Muslims Go to Urban II, Bl (c.1035–99) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Papacy Jerusalem Empires
1096	Peter the Hermit, an old monk on a donkey, leads the largest of the popular groups from Germany on the first crusade Go to Peter the Hermit (d. 1115) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Monasticism Germany The German crusade begins with a massacre of Jews in many of the region's cities Go to Jews, Christian attitudes to in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 11th century Politics Persecution and repression Religion Judaism Germany
1098	After a siege of seven months, the city of Antioch falls to the knights of the first crusade Go to Antioch in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 11th century Religion Christianity War Asia West Asia Turkey Empires
1099	Crusaders capture the holy city of Jerusalem and massacre the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants Go to Crusades in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Islam Judaism Jerusalem Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Empires
c. 1109	The crusaders now rule the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, the principality of Antioch and the counties of Tripoli and Edessa Go to Crusades in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Jerusalem Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Empires
1113	The Knights of St John of Jerusalem become an established order under papal protection Go to Hospitallers in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Religion Christianity Papacy Jerusalem Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1120	The Knights Templar are founded, to protect pilgrims from the Muslims on the journey to Jerusalem Go to Knight Templar in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Religion Christianity Jerusalem Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1144	The city of Edessa is captured by Zangi, a Mameluke general, in the first setback for the crusaders in the Middle East Go to Mameluke in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization War Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria The fall of Edessa prompts the pope, Eugenius III, to call for a second crusade to defend the Latin kingdom Go to Eugenius III (d. 1153) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Religion Christianity Papacy War Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Europe Italy
1145	A bishop in the crusader territories of the Middle East has news of a fabulously wealthy Christian king, Prester John Go to Prester John in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Religion Christianity Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1147	Alfonso I takes Lisbon from the Muslims, with the unexpected help of some passing English crusaders Go to Lisbon in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Europe Portugal The second crusade is led east by two kings, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany Go to Louis VII (c.1120–80) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Europe France Germany
1148	By the time Louis VII and Conrad III reach the Holy Land they have lost more than half their joint armies to Muslim attacks Go to Louis VII (c.1120–80) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Louis VII and Conrad III do grave harm to the Latin Kingdom by a feeble attack that merely alienates the previously friendly city of Damascus Go to Latin kingdom of Jerusalem in The Oxford Companion to Western Art (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1187	Saladin destroys the Christian army of the Latin kingdom in a battle below the Horns of Hattin Go to Hattin, battle of (1187) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Battles Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Saladin captures various Crusader fortresses and walled cities, including Acre Go to Acre in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization War Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Saladin takes Jerusalem and treats the Christian inhabitants with a consideration unusual for the time Go to Saladin (1138–93) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization War Jerusalem Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1190	A year after succeeding to the throne of England, Richard I sets off east as one of the leaders of the third crusade Go to Crusades in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain The third crusade suffers an early disaster when its first leader, the emperor Frederick Barbarossa, is drowned crossing the Calycadnus river Go to Frederick I (c.1122–90) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Asia West Asia Turkey
1191	The Muslim garrison of Acre surrenders to Richard I, who orders the massacre of 2700 of its members Go to Acre in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Islam Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel The Teutonic Knights are founded to run a hospital in Acre, in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem Go to Teutonic Knight in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Religion Christianity Jerusalem Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1202	The fleet of the fourth crusade departs from Venice - only to be diverted from its purposes by Venetian guile Go to Crusades in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Venice Europe Italy Empires
1204	The crusaders of the fourth crusade besiege, take and destroy the Christian city of Constantinople Go to Istanbul in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Turkey Europe Empires Venice takes the useful islands of Corfu and Crete as part of the spoils of the fourth crusade Go to Crusades in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Venice Europe Greece Italy
c. 1205	Many of the treasures adorning the church of San Marco in Venice are loot taken from Constantinople during the fourth crusade Go to Venice in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Venice Turkey Europe Italy Empires
1212	Participants in the Children's Crusade suffer disaster after the waters of the Mediterranean fail to part for them Go to Children's Crusade (1212) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 13th century Religion Christianity Europe Italy
1219	St Francis of Assisi joins a crusading army in Egypt and attempts to convert the sultan Melek-el-Kamel and his followers to Christianity Go to Francis Of Assisi, St (1181/2–1226) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 13th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Africa North Africa Egypt
1228	Frederick II, leader of the sixth crusade, briefly recovers Jerusalem for the Christians by negotiating with the Muslims Go to Frederick II (1712–86) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Islam Jerusalem Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1291	In the space of a few months the Muslims take the last four crusader castles, Tyre, Sidon, Acre and finally Beirut Go to Acre in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Empires
1295	The new Mameluke dynasty in Egypt begins a systematic campaign to drive the Crusaders out of the Middle East Go to Crusades in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Empires
1303	The Knights Templars withdraw from the island of Arwad, the last foothold of the crusaders in the Middle East Go to Knight Templar in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 14th century Politics Conquest and colonization Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Empires
1328	When Charles IV dies, for the first time in more than 400 years of the Capetian dynasty there is no son or brother to inherit the French crown Go to Capetian (987–1328) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France A French cousin, Philip of Valois, is selected to succeed Charles IV - in preference to an English cousin, Edward III Go to Philip VI (1293–1350) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1337	Philip VI of France confiscates Guienne, a fief belonging to Edward III of England - whose response begins the Hundred Years' War Go to Hundred Years War in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe France Rulers and politicians Britain
1340	Edward III, in Ghent, publicly assumes the title and the arms of the king of France Go to Bruce, Edward (d. 1318) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe France Rulers and politicians Britain
1346	The more mobile English force, of longbows and infantry, defeats at Crécy the unwieldy crossbows and heavy cavalry of the French Go to Crécy, battle of (1346) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century War Battles Europe France
1347	The English siege of Calais ends when six burghers of the town, with ropes around their necks, offer their lives to save their fellow citizens Go to Calais, possession of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century War Europe France
1356	The battle of Poitiers ends, on the third day, with victory for the English and the capture of the French king, John II Go to Poitiers, Battle of (19 September 1356) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Battles Europe France
1360	After four years of captivity in Bordeaux and London, the French king John II is released for a promised ransom of 3 million gold crowns Go to Charles IV (1316–78) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1392	Charles VI, king of France, suffers the first of many violent fits of madness Go to Charles VI (1368–1422) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1407	Rivalry between factions of the French royal family results in the murder in Paris of the king's brother, Louis duke of Orléans, and the onset of civil war Go to Charles VI (1368–1422) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1413	Henry V succeeds his father, Henry IV, as king of England Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain
1415	Henry V captures the French stronghold of Harfleur - where, in Shakespeare, he urges his dear friends 'once more unto the breach' Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War Europe France Henry V wins a victory on St Crispin's day at Agincourt, against a much larger and more heavily armed French force Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War Battles Europe France
1419	After a six-month siege Henry V makes a triumphal entry into Rouen, the city of his Norman ancestors Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War Europe France John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, is murdered by the Armagnac faction in the presence of the dauphin - escalating France's civil war Go to Aal, Johannes (c.1500–1551) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1420	The treaty of Troyes, between the English and the Burgundian faction, grants Henry V the status of heir to the French throne Go to Troyes, treaty of (1420) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe France Rulers and politicians Britain Henry V marries Catherine, daughter of the French king and sister of the rightful heir to the kingdom, the dauphin, who is on the opposing side Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe France Rulers and politicians Britain
1422	The dauphin proclaims himself Charles VII of France, but with Paris in the hands of his enemies he is known as the king of Bourges Go to Charles VII (1403–61) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France Henry VI, son of Henry V and Catherine of France, is king of England and theoretically king of France before his first birthday Go to Henry VI (b. 6 Dec. 1421) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe France Rulers and politicians Britain
1428	A peasant girl, Joan of Arc, hears the voices of saints urging her to relieve the siege of Orléans Go to Joan of Arc, St (1412–31) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity War Europe France
1429	Joan of Arc wins her way into the presence of Charles VII at Chinon and persuades him, eventually, to trust her Go to Charles VII (1403–61) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity War Europe France Joan of Arc leads French forces in the successful relief of Orléans Go to Joan of Arc, St (1412–31) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity War Europe France Joan of Arc stands nearby while Charles VII is anointed at Reims, then kneels before him and for the first time calls him her king Go to Charles VII (1403–61) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity War Europe France
1430	Joan of Arc is captured in a skirmish with the Burgundians, who subsequently hand her over to the English Go to Joan of Arc, St (1412–31) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity War Europe France
1431	Joan of Arc, tried by the Inquisition on behalf of the English in Rouen, is burned at the stake as a relapsed heretic Go to Inquisition in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity War Europe France
1437	Charles VII enters Paris, marking conclusively the end of the French civil war Go to Charles VII (1403–61) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1450	The French bring two small cannon on to the battlefield at Formigny, where they have a significant effect in achieving the French victory Go to Formigny, Battle of (15 April 1450) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War Weapons Europe France
1453	The French win a convincing victory at Castillon, recovering the last stronghold (except Calais) held by the English in France Go to Castillon, battle of (1453) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War Battles Europe France Charles VII's full recovery of Aquitaine and Normandy effectively brings to an end the Hundred Years' War Go to Charles VII (1403–61) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War Europe France
1475	Edward IV, landing at Calais with a large army, is bought off at Picquigny with a bribe - ending his attempt to revive the Hundred Years' War Go to Edward IV (1442–83) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe France Rulers and politicians Britain
1625	The English parliament attempts to clip the wings of the new king, Charles I, by placing an annual limit on his power to raise taxes Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain
1626	Charles I frustrates the English parliament's restrictions by raising taxes without summoning parliament for renewed approval Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain
1628	The English parliament's Petition of Right emphasizes the right of the citizen to be protected from royal tyranny Go to Petition of Right (1628) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Persecution and repression War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain
1629	Charles I dismisses his parliament in Westminster, and fails to summon another in the following eleven years Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain
1634	Charles I demands ship money to increase his revenue, albeit in the absence of its conventional justification - a crisis of national defence Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain
1636	John Hampden refuses to pay ship money to Charles I, beginning a campaign that gradually wins wide support Go to Hampden, John (1594–1643) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Protest and rebellion War British Isles Europe Britain
1637	Charles I and his archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, attempt to impose the full Anglican hierarchy on presbyterian Scotland Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Religion Christianity War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain
1638	A National Covenant, first signed in an Edinburgh churchyard, commits the Covenanters to oppose Charles I's reforms of the Church of Scotland Go to Covenanters in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Reformation Britain 1500-1750 Politics Protest and rebellion Religion Christianity War Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Riots erupt in Edinburgh, in response to the attempt by Charles I and Laud to impose a hierarchy of Anglican bishops Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Protest and rebellion Religion Christianity War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain
1639	The finances of the English king, Charles I, are in crisis, with his agents able to collect each year only a fraction of his demands Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain Covenanters seize control of Edinburgh and other Scottish towns, launching the conflict with England known as the Bishops' War Go to Covenanters in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Protest and rebellion War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain
1640	In need of funds for the Bishops' War in Scotland, Charles I summons parliament to Westminster Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain Parliament denies Charles I's request for funds and is dismissed after three weeks (the Short Parliament) Go to Short Parliament (May 1640) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain Charles I's financial crisis causes him to summon another parliament to Westminster (the Long Parliament, not dissolved until 1660) Go to Long Parliament (1640–60) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain The new parliament immediately impeaches Charles I's two closest advisers, the earl of Strafford and archbishop William Laud Go to Long Parliament (1640–60) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain
c. 1641	Cavalier is now in use as a term of abuse for supporters of the royal cause Go to cavalier in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Roundhead is now in use as a term of abuse for supporters of parliament Go to Roundhead noun in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Under pressure from parliament, Charles I signs the death warrant of his most powerful supporter, the earl of Strafford Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Parliament presents Charles I with the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against his conduct of the realm Go to Grand Remonstrance (1641) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain
1642	Charles I comes in person to the House of Commons, but fails in his attempt to arrest the Five Members whom he accuses of treason Go to five members (1642) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Charles I leaves London and heads for the north of England, where his support is the strongest Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I, travels to Holland, taking with her the English crown jewels Go to Henrietta Maria in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain Parliament sends Charles I a list of political demands, the Nineteen Propositions, which it would be impossible for him to accept Go to Nineteen Propositions in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain Charles I, at Nottingham, raises the royal standard - signalling that he considers himself at war Go to English Civil War (1642–49) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War British Isles Europe Britain Charles I leads his army into action at Edgehill - the first, but inconclusive, battle in the English Civil War Go to English Civil War (1642–49) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War Battles British Isles Europe Britain Charles I marches to within a few miles of Westminster (to Turnham Green), but withdraws without engaging the enemy Go to English Civil War (1642–49) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War British Isles Europe Britain Charles I withdraws to Oxford, where he establishes his court for the rest of the war Go to English Civil War (1642–49) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain
1644	In the first decisive battle of the English Civil War the king's nephew, Rupert of the Rhine, is heavily defeated at Marston Moor Go to English Civil War (1642–49) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War Battles British Isles Europe Britain
1645	Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell form England's first professional army, calling it the New Model Army Go to New Model Army in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War British Isles Europe Britain The royalist forces, again under the command of Rupert of the Rhine, suffer another major defeat at Naseby Go to English Civil War (1642–49) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War Battles British Isles Europe Britain
1646	With a parliamentary army surrounding royalist Oxford, Charles I escapes in disguise and heads north Go to English Civil War (1642–49) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War British Isles Europe Britain Charles I puts himself in the hands of a Scottish army, opposed at the time to the English parliament Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War British Isles Europe Britain
1647	The Scottish army holding Charles I makes peace with parliament, and hands the king to parliamentary commissioners Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain Charles I is held at his palace of Hampton Court, as a prisoner of Cromwell and parliament Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain Charles I comes to a secret arrangement with a group of Covenanters in Scotland, winning their support Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain
1648	Scottish Covenanters invade England in support of the English king, Charles I, in his struggle against parliament Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain Parliamentary forces defeat the Scottish invaders and suppress other new outbreaks of royalist support Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain Colonel Thomas Pride denies entrance to the House of Commons to about 140 opponents of Cromwell's policies Go to Pride's Purge in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain
1649	Cromwell persuades the House of Commons, purged now of all opposition, that it is treason for a king to wage war against parliament Go to Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain Charles I, brought to trial before 135 commissioners in Westminster Hall, refuses to recognise the court's validity Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain After a trial lasting a week in Westminster Hall, Charles I is convicted of treason for fighting a war against parliament Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Charles I is beheaded on a scaffold erected in the street in London's Whitehall Go to Charles I (1600–49) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Charles II, in the Hague, inherits the English and Scottish thrones of his executed father, Charles I Go to Charles II (1630–85) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain Parliament in London abolishes the monarchy in England, as 'unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous' Go to Rump Parliament in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain Parliament chooses Oliver Cromwell to chair the new English Commonwealth's council of state Go to Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain
1651	Charles II returns to Scotland and is crowned king of Scots in the traditional manner at Scone Go to Charles II (1630–85) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War Scotland British Isles Europe Britain Charles II is defeated by Cromwell at Worcester and escapes in disguise to France Go to Charles II (1630–85) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 War Battles British Isles Europe Britain
1653	Cromwell is appointed Lord Protector of the Commonwealth for life, under legislation entitled the Instrument of Government Go to Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain
1658	Cromwell dies after naming his son Richard to succeed him in the office of Lord Protector Go to Cromwell, Richard (1626–1712) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain
1659	The ineffective Richard Cromwell goes into voluntary retirement, an event linked to the strong possibility of a military coup Go to Cromwell, Richard (1626–1712) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain
1660	General George Monck marches south from Scotland to London, to intervene in England's unresolved political crisis Go to Monck, George, 1st Duke of Albemarle (1608–70) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain Monck, reaching London, dissolves the Long Parliament and convenes a new one Go to Monck, George, 1st Duke of Albemarle (1608–70) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics War British Isles Europe Britain Monck persuades Charles II to sign, at Breda in Holland, a declaration of policies to heal the wounds of the Civil War Go to Monck, George, 1st Duke of Albemarle (1608–70) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain The new Convention Parliament in Westminster invites Charles II to return as king Go to Convention Parliaments in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain Charles II lands at Dover and is given a warm welcome in London four days later Go to Charles II (1630–85) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Europe Rulers and politicians Britain The Act of Indemnity, pardoning all offences since 1637 except those of the regicides, is given the royal assent Go to Indemnity and Oblivion, Act of (1660) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain
1661	The body of Oliver Cromwell is hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn Go to Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: English Civil War 17th century Britain 1500-1750 Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles Europe Britain
1749	A French official travels down the Ohio valley, placing markers to claim it for France Go to New France in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War Politics Conquest and colonization War European empires from 1415 French empire Europe Empires North America United States
1751	Robert Clive prevails over the French after holding out during the seven-week siege of Arcot in southern India Go to Clive, Robert (1725–74) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War British empire French empire Mughal empire Asia South Asia India (the subcontinent) Empires
1752	The French seize or evict every English-speaking trader in the region of the upper Ohio Go to New France in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War French empire Empires North America United States
1753	George Washington undertakes a difficult and ineffectual journey to persuade the French to withdraw from the Ohio valley Go to Washington, George (1732–99) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War French empire Empires North America United States
1754	Benjamin Franklin's chopped-up snake, urging union of the colonies with the caption 'Join or Die', is the first American political cartoon Go to Franklin, Benjamin (1706–90) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion North America United States George Washington kills ten French troops at Fort Duquesne, in the first violent clash of the French and Indian war Go to French and Indian War (1754–1763) in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War Battles British colonial America British empire French empire Empires North America United States Benjamin Franklin proposes to the Albany Congress that the colonies should unite to form a colonial government Go to Albany Congress (1754) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States The British colonies negotiate with the Iroquois at the Albany Congress, in the face of the French threat in the Ohio valley Go to Albany Congress (1754) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War Politics War American Indians British colonial America British empire European empires from 1415 French empire Europe Empires North America United States
1755	A British force under Edward Braddock lands in America to provide support against the French in the Ohio valley Go to French and Indian War (1754–1763) in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War British colonial America British empire French empire Empires North America United States The first Conestoga wagons are acquired by George Washington for an expedition through the Alleghenies Go to covered wagon noun in New Oxford American Dictionary (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War Travel and transport War Society North America United States The army led by Edward Braddock and George Washington is ambushed at Fort Duquesne and Braddock is killed Go to Braddock, Edward (1695–1755) in The Oxford Companion to American Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War Battles British colonial America British empire French empire Empires North America United States
1756	The French in America, under the marquis of Montcalm, begin two highly successful years of campaigning against the British Go to French and Indian War (1754–1763) in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War French empire Empires North America Canada United States
1759	Wolfe defeats Montcalm and captures Quebec, but both commanders die in the engagement Go to Quebec, battle of (1759) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War War British empire French empire Empires North America Canada
1763	In the treaty of Paris France cedes to Britain all its territory north of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi river, except the district of New Orleans Go to Paris, Treaty of (1763) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War Politics War British colonial America British empire European empires from 1415 French empire Europe Empires North America United States In the treaty of Paris, Spain cedes Florida to Britain, completing British possession of the entire east coast of north America Go to Paris, Treaty of (1763) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French and Indian War Politics War British colonial America British empire European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America Canada United States
1764	Britain passes the Sugar Act, levying duty on sugar, wine and textiles imported into America Go to Sugar Acts in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Politics Protest and rebellion Commerce and industry Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America British empire European empires from 1415 Europe Society Empires Britain North America United States
1765	Britain passes the Stamp Act, taxing legal documents and newspapers in the American colonies Go to Stamp Act (1765) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Politics Protest and rebellion Commerce and industry Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America British empire European empires from 1415 Europe Society Empires Britain North America United States American campaigners against the Stamp Act organize themselves as the Sons of Liberty in Massachusetts and New York Go to Sons of Liberty in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States
1766	Britain repeals the Stamp Act, in a major reversal of policy achieved by resistance in the American colonies Go to Stamp Act (1765) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Politics Protest and rebellion Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires Britain North America United States
1767	The British Chancellor, Charles Townshend, passes a series of acts taxing all glass, lead, paint, paper and tea imported into the American colonies Go to Townshend Acts (1767) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Politics Protest and rebellion Commerce and industry Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America British empire European empires from 1415 Europe Society Empires Britain North America United States
1768	A border incident at Balta, in the southern Ukraine, sparks a war between Russia and Turkey that will last six years Go to Russo-Ottoman Wars in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Crimean War War Ottoman empire Europe Russia Empires
1770	British troops fire into an unruly crowd in Boston, Massachusetts, killing five Go to Boston Massacre (1770) in The Oxford Companion to American Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States In response to American protests, the British government removes the Townshend duties on all commodities with the exception of tea Go to Townshend Acts (1767) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Politics Protest and rebellion Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires Britain North America United States
1773	Some fifty colonists, disguised as Indians, tip a valuable cargo of tea into Boston harbour as a protest against British tax Go to Boston Tea Party (1773) in The Oxford Companion to United States History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States
1774	As a retaliation for the Boston Tea Party, the British parliament closes Boston's port with the first of its Coercive Acts Go to Coercive Acts (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Britain's new Coercive (or Intolerable) Acts include the requirement that Massachusetts citizens give board and lodging to British troops Go to Coercive Acts (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Politics Protest and rebellion Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires Britain North America United States In the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, ending the recent Russo-Turkish war, the Ottoman empire cedes the Crimea to Russia Go to Russo-Ottoman Wars in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Crimean War Politics War Turks European empires from 1415 Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Russia Empires The treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji grants Russia special rights in relation to the Christian Holy Places under Ottoman control Go to Russo-Ottoman Wars in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Crimean War Politics Religion Christianity War Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Empires Delegates from twelve American colonies meet in Philadelphia and agree not to import any goods from Britain Go to Continental Congress (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States
1775	Patrick Henry makes a stirring declaration – 'Give me liberty or give me death' – to the Virginia Assembly Go to Henry, Patrick (1736–99) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States General Gage sends a detachment of British troops to seize weapons held by American Patriots at Concord Go to Gage, Thomas (1721–87) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Paul Revere is one of the US riders taking an urgent warning to Concord, but he is captured on the journey Go to Revere, Paul (1735–1818) in The Oxford Companion to United States History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion War North America United States The first shot of the American Revolution is fired in a skirmish between redcoats and militiamen at Lexington, on the road to Concord Go to Lexington and Concord, Battle of (19 April 1775) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Delegates from the states reassemble in Philadelphia, with hostilities against the British already under way in Massachusetts Go to Continental Congress (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Delegates in Philadelphia select George Washington as commander-in-chief of the colonial army Go to Washington, George (1732–99) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 US presidents Europe Empires Rulers and politicians North America United States At Bunker Hill, overlooking Boston from the north, the American militiamen prove their worth against British professional soldiers Go to Bunker Hill, battle of (1775) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Delegates to the Continental Congress make a final bid for peace, sending the Olive Branch Petition to George III Go to Olive Branch Petition in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Britain declares the colonies to be in a state of rebellion, and sets up a naval blockade of the American coastline Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Yankee Doodle is the most popular song with the patriot troops in the American Revolution Go to Yankee Doodle in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Performing arts Music British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States
1776	George Washington raises on Prospect Hill a new American flag, the British red ensign on a ground of thirteen stripes – one for each colony Go to Washington, George (1732–99) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 US presidents Europe Empires Rulers and politicians North America United States In Common Sense, an anonymous pamphlet, English immigrant Thomas Paine is the first to argue that the American colonies should be independent Go to Paine, Thomas (1737–1809) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Literature American literature Literature in English Politics Protest and rebellion British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States George Washington drives the British garrison from Boston, and moves south to protect New York Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War North America United States The revolutionary convention of Virginia votes for independence from Britain, and instructs its delegates in Philadelphia to propose this motion Go to Continental Congress (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Democracy and dissent Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Virginia's motion for independence from Britain is passed at the Continental Congress of the colonies with no opposing vote Go to Continental Congress (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Democracy and dissent Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States Thomas Jefferson's text for the Declaration of Independence is accepted by the Congress in Philadelphia Go to Declaration of Independence in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Democracy and dissent Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 US presidents Europe Empires Rulers and politicians North America United States John Hancock is the first delegate to sign the Declaration of Independence, formally written out on a large sheet of parchment Go to Hancock, John (1737–93) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Democracy and dissent Protest and rebellion War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States George Washington, driven from New York by the British, retreats towards Philadelphia Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War North America United States George Washington defeats the British at Trenton at a psychologically important moment in the course of the war Go to Trenton, battle of (1776) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War Battles North America United States
1777	Congress adopts a new flag for independent America – the stars and stripes Go to Continental Congress (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Protest and rebellion War North America United States George Washington, heavily defeated in a battle at Brandywine, is forced to relinquish Philadelphia to the British Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War North America United States The American general Horatio Gates captures the army of General Burgoyne near Saratoga Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War Battles North America United States The US Congress agrees the final version of the Articles of Confederation, defining the terms on which states join the Union Go to Articles of Confederation (1781) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics Democracy and dissent War North America United States
1778	Benjamin Franklin persuades the French to sign a Treaty of Alliance, committing France to the US cause Go to Franklin, Benjamin (1706–90) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics War European empires from 1415 Europe France Empires North America United States France, joining the American colonies in their fight against Britain, sends a large fleet across the Atlantic Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Britain 1750-1900 War Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America Europe France Britain North America United States The American naval hero John Paul Jones makes successful raids around the coasts of Britain Go to Jones, John Paul (1747–1792) in The Oxford Companion to American Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Britain 1750-1900 War Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America Europe Britain North America United States The British rapidly abandon Philadelphia on news of the expected arrival of a French fleet Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War North America United States The British adopt a new policy in the south, landing in Georgia and capturing much of South Carolina Go to American Revolution in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War Latin America South America North America United States Francis Hopkinson's popular ballad The Battle of the Kegs describes an ingenious American threat to the British navy Go to Battle of the Kegs, The in The Concise Oxford Companion to American Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Literature American literature Literature in English Poetry War North America United States
1779	U.S.S. Bonhomme Richard, commanded by John Paul Jones, fights H.M.S. Serapis near England's Flamborough Head Go to Jones, John Paul (1747–1792) in The Oxford Companion to American Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Britain 1750-1900 War Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America Europe Britain North America United States
1780	The capture of British go-between John André yields proof that US general Benedict Arnold is in the pay of the British Go to Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801) in The Oxford Companion to United States History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War North America United States British army officer John André is executed in New York as a spy Go to André, John in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War North America United States
1781	Maryland, ratifies the Articles of Confederation (the last state to do so), completing 'the Confederation of the United States' Go to Articles of Confederation (1781) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Politics War North America United States The Bank of North America is established by the Continental Congress to lend money to the fledgling Revolutionary government Go to Continental Congress (1774) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Commerce and industry War Society North America United States US poet Philip Freneau describes in The British Prison Ship the horrors of his experiences as a prisoner Go to Freneau, Philip Morin (1752–1832) in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Literature American literature Literature in English Poetry War North America United States The British general Charles Cornwallis, isolated at Yorktown, is forced to surrender in the final engagement of the Revolutionary War Go to Cornwallis, Charles, 1st Marquis Cornwallis (1738–1805) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War War Battles British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America United States
c. 1783	Some 40,000 Loyalists flee from British America to the previously French colonies, in particular Nova Scotia Go to New France in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution War British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires North America Canada United States In the Treaty of Paris, negotiated by Adams, Franklin and Jay, the British government recognizes US independence Go to Paris, Treaty of (1783) in The Oxford Companion to American Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution American Revolutionary War Britain 1750-1900 Politics War Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles British colonial America European empires from 1415 Europe Empires Britain North America United States
1785	The French queen Marie Antoinette is wrongly implicated in a scandal involving a diamond necklace Go to Marie Antoinette (1755–93) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Dynasties and royalty Europe France
1787	The French finance minister, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, is dismissed when his proposed reforms meet aristocratic opposition Go to French Revolution (1789) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Europe France Delegates meeting in Philadelphia agree a final draft for a US constitution, to be submitted to the states for ratification Go to Constitution of the United States in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Democracy and dissent US presidents Rulers and politicians North America United States The Federalist Papers, in support of the Constitution and mainly written by Alexander Hamilton, begin appearing in New York Go to Hamilton, Alexander in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics North America United States
1788	The constitution of the United States is ratified by the states, but it is immediately agreed that amendments will be desirable Go to Constitution of the United States in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics Democracy and dissent US presidents Rulers and politicians North America United States The ministers of Louis XVI reluctantly announce that the estates general will meet in 1789, for the first time since 1614 Go to estates general in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Democracy and dissent Europe France
1789	George Washington, unanimously elected first president of the United States, is inaugurated on Wall Street in New York Go to Washington, George (1732–99) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century American Revolution Politics US presidents Rulers and politicians North America United States A pamphlet published in France by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès asks a challenging question, What is the Third Estate? Go to Siéyès, Emmanuel‐Joseph, abbé (1748–1836) in The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion Europe France A left-wing political club begins to meet in a Jacobin convent in Paris, thus becoming known as the Jacobins Go to Jacobin Club in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion Europe France Delegates of the Third Estate swear an oath in a tennis court at Versailles, pledging themselves not to disperse until France has a constitution Go to Tennis Court Oath in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Europe France An excited Paris mob liberates the seven prisoners held in the forbidding fortress of the Bastille Go to Bastille in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion Europe France Parisians force their way into the palace at Versailles and insist on Louis XVI and his royal family accompanying them back to Paris Go to Louis XVI (1754–93) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion Europe France French doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin proposes a decapitation machine as a more humane form of capital punishment Go to guillotine in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Europe France
1790	Anglo-Irish politician Edmund Burke publishes Reflections on the Revolution in France, a blistering attack on recent events across the Channel Go to Burke, Edmund (1729–97) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Literature French literature English literature Literature in English Politics Protest and rebellion Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles Europe Ireland Britain
1791	Louis XVI and his family attempt to flee from Paris to the border but are captured at Varennes Go to Louis XVI (1754–93) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France Stationed at Valence, Napoleon becomes president of the local Jacobin club and makes radical speeches against the nobility and clergy Go to Jacobin in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Europe France Thomas Paine publishes the first part of The Rights of Man, his reply to Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France Go to Rights of Man, The in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Literature French literature English literature Literature in English Politics Protest and rebellion Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles Europe Britain
1792	France declares war on the Austrian emperor, an event that plunges Europe into more than 20 years of conflict Go to French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Austrian empire Habsburgs War Europe Austria France Empires In a first demonstration of the guillotine, a highwayman is beheaded in a Paris square Go to guillotine in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Europe France A French officer, Rouget de Lisle, writes a stirring anthem for France, soon to be known as the Marseillaise Go to Marseillaise, La in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music (5 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Performing arts Music Europe France Thomas Paine moves hurriedly to France, to escape a charge of treason in England for opinions expressed in his Rights of Man Go to Rights of Man, The in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Britain 1750-1900 Literature French literature English literature Literature in English Politics Protest and rebellion Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles Europe France Britain A French revolutionary army defeats the Austrians and Prussians at Valmy, and thus saves Paris from attack Go to Valmy, Battle of (1792) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Battles Europe France After their success at Valmy, French republican armies overrun much of the Austrian Netherlands Go to Valmy, Battle of (1792) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Battles Europe Belgium France Netherlands During four September days, thugs are encouraged to massacre some 1400 aristocrats and priests held in Paris prisons Go to Septembermorde in The Oxford Companion to German Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Terrorism and assassination Europe France The National Convention abolishes royalty in France and establishes the first republic See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Politics War Europe France
1793	Louis XVI is guillotined after a majority of just one in the national Convention has voted for death without delay Go to Louis XVI (1754–93) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France Britain joins other European nations in war against France, mainly in naval engagements in the West Indies and Atlantic Go to Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Britain 1750-1900 War Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles Europe Britain Rebellion breaks out in the Vendée and a peasant army marches against republican Paris Go to Vendée revolt (1793–4) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion Europe France 25-year-old Charlotte Corday gains access to prominent republican Jean-Paul Marat and stabs him in his bath See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Terrorism and assassination Europe France France becomes the first nation to attempt national conscription, calling up bachelors between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five Go to levée en masse (23 August 1793) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Europe France The French Convention adopts imaginative names for the months in their new republican calendar See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Social and domestic Europe France Society The Terror begins in republican France, with executions rising to more than 3000 in December Go to the Terror in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Terrorism and assassination Europe France English revolutionary Thomas Paine spends nearly a year in a French prison after opposing the execution of Louis XVI Go to Paine, Thomas (1737–1809) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Protest and rebellion Europe France Napoleon's soldiers capture Toulon and his artillery fire forces the Anglo-Spanish fleet to withdraw from the harbour Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Battles Europe France
1794	Robespierre and St Just succeed in sending Danton and his faction to the guillotine in April See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Terrorism and assassination Europe France French chemist Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is guillotined for having been involved with tax collection in the ancien régime Go to Lavoisier, Antoine‐Laurent de (1743–94) in The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Persecution and repression Europe France Robespierre and his faction go to the guillotine in July, in the final bloodletting of the Terror See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Politics Terrorism and assassination Europe France
1795	The Netherlands, forced by invasion into the French camp, is transformed into the Batavian republic Go to Batavian Republic in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Politics War Europe Netherlands The 26-year-old Napoleon Bonaparte comes to public attention for his part in saving the Convention in Paris from an assault by rebels Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Politics Protest and rebellion War Europe France With the Dutch entering the war on the side of the French, Britain seizes their valuable Cape colony in South Africa Go to Cape Colony in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1796	Napoleon marries Josephine de Beauharnais, widow of Alexandre de Beauharnais, guillotined in 1794 Go to Joséphine (1763–1814) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Europe France After two rapid victories in north Italy, Napoleon marches on Turin and the king of Sardinia asks for an armistice Go to Napoleonic Wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Italy In the armistice of Cherasco the king of Sardinia cedes to France his territories of Savoy and Nice Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars War Italy Napoleon Bonaparte takes command of the French army of Italy, with astonishingly successful results Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Europe Italy Napoleon creates in northern Italy the Cisalpine Republic, formed from occupied territores including the papal states of Bologna and Ferrara Go to Repubblica Cisalpina in The Oxford Companion to Italian Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Papacy War Italy Irish nationalist Wolfe Tone sails from France to invade Ireland with a force of 14,000 French soldiers Go to Tone, Wolfe (1763–98) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Politics Protest and rebellion War British Isles Europe Ireland Britain
1797	Napoleon marches against Vienna and is only two days from the city when the emperor requests an armistice Go to French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Austria In Venice Napoleon deposes the last of the doges and sets up a provisional democracy Go to French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars War Venice Italy On 18 Fructidor (September 4) Napoleon organizes, from a distance, a coup d'étât in Paris on behalf of three of the Directors Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution Napoleonic era Europe France Napoleon achieves the peace of Campo Formio, by which Austria cedes the Austrian Netherlands and northern Italy to France Go to French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Austrian empire Habsburgs Napoleonic era Politics Conquest and colonization War Europe Austria Empires By the Treaty of Campo Formio the free republic of Venice, created by Napoleon, is handed over to Austrian rule Go to French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Austrian empire Habsburgs Napoleonic era Politics Conquest and colonization War Venice Europe Austria Italy Empires
1798	Napoleon, with distinguished scientists in his fleet, sails to invade Egypt Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Africa North Africa Europe Napoleon's campaign in Egypt begins well with the Battle of the Pyramids, a victory over an Egyptian army Go to Pyramids, Battle of the (21 July 1798) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic era War Battles Africa North Africa Egypt Irish nationalist Wolfe Tone, convicted of treason for his failed invasion, cuts his throat to cheat the British gallows Go to Tone, Wolfe (1763–98) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Politics Protest and rebellion War British Isles Europe Ireland Britain Disaster strikes the French in Egypt when Nelson finds their fleet in Aboukir Bay and destroys it in the Battle of the Nile Go to Nile, battle of the (1798) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars War Battles Africa North Africa Egypt
1799	Napoleon, in Syria, orders 3000 captured defenders of Jaffa to be killed by bayonet or drowning to save ammunition Go to French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic era War Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Napoleon abandons his army in Egypt and returns hastily to Paris at a time of great political opportunity Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Africa North Africa Egypt Europe France Napoleon contrives a military coup that ends the Directory and gives him sweeping powers as First Consul Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic Wars Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1800	Napoleon takes a French army through the Alps before the snows have cleared, and defeats the Austrians at Marengo Go to Marengo, Battle of in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe France Italy
1801	Horatio Nelson puts his telescope to his blind eye when the signal is given to withdraw from Copenhagen harbour Go to Nelson, Admiral Horatio (1758–1805) [Hist.] in The Oxford Dictionary of Reference and Allusion (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: French Revolutionary Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe Denmark
1802	The treaty agreed at Amiens between France and Britain brings a welcome lull after ten years of warfare in Europe Go to Amiens, treaty of (1802) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Britain 1750-1900 Politics War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe France Britain
1803	The peace of Amiens comes to an abrupt end when Britain declares war again on France Go to Amiens, treaty of (1802) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Britain 1750-1900 Politics War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe France Britain Napoleon assembles an invasion fleet against Britain, where Martello towers are hastily built in preparation Go to Martello towers in The Oxford Companion to Family and Local History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe France
1804	Napoleon crowns himself emperor of the French in a magnificent ceremony in Notre Dame Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France
1805	Napoleon has himself crowned king of Italy in the cathedral in Milan Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe Italy Horatio Nelson dies on the deck of the Victory after winning the battle of Trafalgar Go to Nelson, Horatio, Viscount Nelson, Duke of Bronte (1758–1805) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe Spain Napoleon enters Vienna and then defeats an Austrian and Russian army at Austerlitz Go to Austerlitz, Battle of (1805) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Austrian empire Habsburgs Napoleonic era War Battles Austria Empires
1806	The British recapture the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch Go to Cape of Good Hope in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Napoleon imposes his Continental System, designed to strangle Britain's trade Go to Continental System in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Britain 1750-1900 Commerce and industry War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe France Society Britain
1807	To counteract Napoleon's Continental System, Britain passes orders in council penalizing any vessel trading into French-held ports Go to Continental System in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Britain 1750-1900 Commerce and industry War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe France Society Britain Napoleon and the Russian tsar Alexander I meet on a raft at Tilsit and set about carving up Europe Go to Tilsit, Treaties of (7) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Conquest and colonization War European empires from 1415 Europe France Russia Empires Napoleon launches an invasion of Portugal, increasing the likelihood of a Peninsular War Go to Peninsular War (1808–14) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe Portugal The Portuguese royal family flees to Brazil on the approach of a French army led by Jean-Andoche Junot Go to John VI (1769–1826) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe Portugal Latin America Brazil South America
1808	A French army under Joachim Murat advances on Madrid, causing the Spanish royal family to flee Go to Murat, Joachim (c. 1767–1815) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe Spain Napoleon transfers his brother Joseph Bonaparte from the throne of Naples to that of Spain Go to Bonaparte, Joseph (1768–1844) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe Spain Napoleon gives the throne of Naples, vacated by his brother Joseph, to Joachim Murat Go to Murat, Joachim (c. 1767–1815) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe Italy The French capture of Madrid provokes a British response and the resulting Peninsular War Go to Peninsular War (1808–14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Britain 1750-1900 War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 Europe Spain Britain A British army under Arthur Wellesley (later duke of Wellington) defeats the French at Vimeiro, near Lisbon Go to Vimeiro, battle of (1808) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe Portugal
1809	British commander Arthur Wellesley builds the lines of Torres Vedras, to defend the promontory leading south to Lisbon Go to Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of (1769–1852) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe Portugal Napoleon annexes the Papal States and is excommunicated by the pope, Pius VII Go to Pius VII (1742–1823) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Papacy War Europe Italy Napoleon, in response to his excommunication, has pope Pius VII arrested and kept in captivity in northern Italy and then France Go to Pius VII (1742–1823) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Religion Christianity War Europe Italy Napoleon enters Vienna and defeats the Austrians in a battle at nearby Wagram Go to Wagram, Battle of (1809) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Austria John Moore dies at Corunna but his army escapes from Spain and gets back to England Go to Corunna, battle of (1809) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe Spain
1810	The Spanish Cortes flees from the renewed French invasion and establishes itself in Cadiz Go to Spanish–South American Wars of Independence (1810–25) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics War Europe Spain A French marshal, Jean Bernadotte, is offered the position of crown prince and heir to the Swedish throne Go to Charles XIV (1763–1844) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France Sweden
1812	Napoleon launches an attack on his ally, the Russian tsar Alexander I, with an army of more than 600,000 men Go to Alexander I (1777–1825) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe France Russia The Russian army under Marshal Kutuzov confronts the advancing French at Borodino, and though defeated makes a successful withdrawal Go to Kutuzov, Mikhail Ilarionovich, Prince of Smolensk (1745–1813) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe Russia After victory at Borodino, Napoleon enters Moscow to find the city abandoned and burning Go to Borodino, Battle of (7 September 1812) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe Russia Napoleon begins the retreat from Moscow, in arctic conditions and harried by guerrilla attacks Go to Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe Russia Napoleon arrives back in Paris ahead of the remains of his army, after losing half a million men in the Russian campaign Go to Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe France
1813	The king of Prussia, Frederick William III, changes sides and declares war on France Go to Frederick William III (1770–1840) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe France Germany Wellington defeats Napoleon's brother Joseph at Vitoria, and captures his valuable baggage train Go to Vitoria, Battle of (21 June 1813) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe Spain In a treaty with Russia and Prussia at Reichenbach, Austria agrees to declare war on France Go to Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics War Europe Wellington crosses the Bidassoa river in the north of Spain, bringing an enemy army on to French soil for the first time in twenty years Go to Wellington, 1st Duke of in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe France The allies inflict a heavy defeat on Napoleon at Leipzig, in the so-called Battle of the Nations Go to Leipzig, Battle of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Germany
1814	The Russian emperor and the Prussian king take a salute in the Champs Elysées after the allies capture Paris Go to Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe France Napoleon abdicates at Fontainebleau and the French senate invites Louis XVIII to return to reclaim his throne Go to Louis XVIII (1755–1824) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France Ferdinand VII, restored to Spain, imposes a reactionary regime and persecutes his liberal opponents Go to Ferdinand VII (1784–1833) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe Spain Napoleon goes into exile on the island of Elba, which he immediately treats as a miniature state in need of improvement Go to Elba in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France Italy The crowned heads of Europe and their representatives gather in Vienna to tidy up the post-Napoleonic continent Go to Vienna, Congress of in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics War Austria
1815	Napoleon slips away from Elba with a fleet of small vessels and lands on the coast of France Go to Napoleonic Wars (1803–15) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Europe France Napoleon reaches Paris, already accompanied by an enthusiastic regiment that has joined him on his journey north Go to Hundred Days (1815) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Europe France The English and Prussian generals Wellington and Blücher defeat Napoleon in a closely fought battle at Waterloo Go to Waterloo, Battle of (1815) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era War Battles Europe Belgium Netherlands The first news of the victory at Waterloo is given to the British government by a private citizen, Nathan Mayer Rothschild Go to Rothschild in Brewer's Dictionary of London Phrase & Fable (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Britain 1750-1900 War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe Britain The rulers of Russia, Prussia and Austria form a Holy Alliance to preserve their concept of a Christian Europe Go to Holy Alliance (1815) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Religion Christianity War Europe Austria Germany Russia The congress of Vienna leaves the Cape of Good Hope in British hands Go to Vienna, Congress of (1814–15) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire Dutch empire European empires from 1415 Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Napoleon is sent to a more secure place of exile, the rocky Atlantic island of St Helena Go to St Helena in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War Africa South Africa
1820	The Eastern Question, concerning Turkey's ability to control its vast empire, becomes a persistent nineteenth-century theme Go to Eastern Question in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Politics War Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Empires
1841	The Straits Convention, agreed between the European powers and Turkey, is a concerted attempt to prop up the Ottoman empire Go to Ottoman Empire in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Politics War Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Empires
1844	The Russian tsar, Nicholas I, calls Turkey 'the sick man of Europe' Go to Nicholas I (1796–1855) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Politics War Muslim empires Ottoman empire Turkey Europe Russia Empires
1852	France demands that Turkey should end Russia's exclusive control of the Christian Holy Places in the Ottoman empire Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Politics Religion Christianity War Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Empires Russia insists that her exclusive rights over the Holy Places are enshrined in the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Politics Religion Christianity War Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Russia Empires
1853	In a worsening diplomatic crisis, Russia puts her Black Sea fleet in a state of alert at Sebastopol Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Politics War Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Russia Empires France and Britain despatch their fleets to the Dardanelles, in readiness to go through the Straits to the Black Sea Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War War Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Empires Russia occupies two Ottoman principalities, Moldavia and Wallachia, on the west coast of the Black Sea Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Politics Conquest and colonization War Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Europe Empires In the expectation of British and French support, the Ottoman sultan declares war on Russia - launching the Crimean War Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War War Turks British empire Muslim empires Ottoman empire British prime ministers - from 1830 Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Russia Empires Rulers and politicians
1854	British and French warships move up through the Straits and enter the Black Sea in support of Turkey Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War War Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Empires Britain and France enter the war between Turkey and Russia, on the Turkish side Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 War Turks Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles British empire Ottoman empire British prime ministers - from 1830 Europe Empires Rulers and politicians Britain A London editor decides to send a reporter, William Howard Russell ('Russell of The Times'), to the Crimean front Go to Mr Russell of The Times in Brewer's Dictionary of Irish Phrase & Fable (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe Britain British and French troops land at Sebastopol, to besiege the port, and win a limited victory over the Russians at the river Alma Go to Crimean War (1853–56) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War War Battles Muslim empires Ottoman empire Europe Russia Empires Florence Nightingale, responding to reports of horrors in the Crimea, sets sail with a party of twenty-eight nurses Go to Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Science Medicine War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe Britain An inconclusive battle at Balaklava includes the Charge of the Light Brigade, with British cavalry recklessly led towards Russian guns Go to Charge of the Light Brigade (1854) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 War Battles Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe Britain An inconclusive engagement at Inkerman means that the allies in the Crimea have to dig in for the winter besieging Sebastopol Go to Inkerman, battle of (1854) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War War Battles Europe Russia
1855	Jamaican-born nurse Mary Seacole sets up her own 'British Hotel' in the Crimea to provide food and nursing for soldiers in need Go to Black British literature in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Science Medicine War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 Europe Britain Latin America Caribbean Roger Fenton travels out from England to the Crimea – the world's first war photographer Go to Fenton, Roger (1819–69) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Arts Photography War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe Britain English artist William Simpson sends sketches from the Crimea which achieve rapid circulation in Britain as tinted lithographs Go to lithograph in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Printing Arts Prints War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Europe Britain After a siege of nearly a year the Russians abandon Sebastopol, but the Turkish alliance is too exhausted to pursue the conflict Go to Sebastopol in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War War Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Russia Empires
1856	The treaty of Paris ends the Crimean War, limiting Russia's special powers in relation to Turkey Go to Paris, treaty of (1856) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Crimean War Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Politics War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles British empire Muslim empires Ottoman empire British prime ministers - from 1830 Europe Empires Rulers and politicians Britain
1860	Lincoln becomes the Republican presidential candidate, benefiting from a Democratic party split on the issue of slavery Go to Lincoln, Abraham (1809–65) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Democracy and dissent Slavery War US presidents American civil war Society Rulers and politicians North America United States Republican contender Abraham Lincoln is elected US president with only 39% of the popular vote and no electoral votes in eleven southern states Go to Lincoln, Abraham (1809–65) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States South Carolina becomes the first southern state to secede from the Union in response to Lincoln's election Go to South Carolina in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States
1861	Seven southern states, meeting in Montgomery, Alabama, agree to form the Confederate States of America Go to Confederate States of America in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States The seven members of the newly formed Confederacy elect Jefferson Davis as their provisional president Go to Davis, Jefferson (1808–89) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion War American civil war North America United States Richmond, the state capital of Virginia, becomes the capital of the Southern Confederacy Go to Confederate States of America in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion War American civil war North America United States Shots are fired against the Federal military garrison in Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbour, launching the American Civil War Go to Fort Sumter in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States Mathew Brady sends teams of photographers to the various battle fronts to ensure a thorough photographic record of the American Civil War Go to Brady, Mathew B. (1823–96) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Arts Photography War American art American civil war North America United States The first battle of the American Civil War, fought near Manassas and the Bull Run Creek, is a clear Confederate victory Go to American Civil War (1861–65) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War Battles American civil war North America United States
1862	The Monitor and the Merrimack fight all morning off the Virginia coast, in history's first clash between ironclad ships Go to Merrimack in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War Battles American civil war North America United States Julia Ward Howe publishes The Battle Hymn of the Republic, inspired by a visit to Union troops in the American Civil War Go to “Battle Hymn of the Republic, The in The Concise Oxford Companion to American Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Literature American literature Literature in English Poetry War American civil war North America United States A two-day engagement at Shiloh is the first Civil War battle to bring massive casualties, with more than 23,000 dead, wounded or missing Go to Shiloh, Battle of (1862) in The Oxford Companion to United States History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War Battles American civil war North America United States In a surprise raid, Union forces sail up the Mississippi estuary to capture New Orleans Go to New Orleans, Siege of (1862) in The Oxford Companion to American Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War American civil war North America United States George B. McClellan brings a Union army within a few miles of Richmond, but withdraws after the Seven Days Battle against Robert E. Lee Go to Seven Days' Battle in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War American civil war North America United States Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee defeat a Union army in the second battle of Bull Run or Manassas Go to Bull Run, Second Battle of in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War Battles American civil war North America United States The Federal victory at Antietam comes at a cost of more than 22,000 casualties in a single day Go to Antietam, Battle of in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War Battles American civil war North America United States
1863	Mobs of women destroy shops in Richmond, Virginia, in protest at food prices inflated by the war Go to Civil War, American (1861–65) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion War American civil war North America United States The three-day Battle of Gettysburg, inconclusive but more damaging to the Confederates, brings casualties on both sides of more than 50,000 Go to Gettysburg, Battle of (1–3 July 1863) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War Battles American civil war North America United States After a six-week siege the city of Vicksburg surrenders to Ulysses S. Grant, bringing the entire Mississippi under Union control Go to Vicksburg Campaign (November 1862–July 1863) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States Four days of riots in New York greet Lincoln's new conscription or draft laws, with exemptions for the rich Go to Draft Riots, Civil War. in The Oxford Companion to United States History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States President Lincoln, in honouring the Union dead at Gettysburg, captures in three minutes the essence of American democracy Go to Gettysburg Address in The Concise Oxford Companion to American Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Democracy and dissent War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States
1864	Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman become Lincoln's two leading generals in the final thrust of the Civil War Go to Sherman, William Tecumseh (1820–91) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States Grant moves south in a hard-fought campaign to pin down Lee's Confederate army at Petersburg, near Richmond Go to Wilderness to Petersburg Campaign in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War American civil war South America North America United States The Federal government confiscates the Arlington estate of Confederate general Robert E. Lee and turns it into a war cemetery Go to Arlington National Cemetery in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Social and domestic War American civil war Society North America United States William Tecumseh Sherman captures Atlanta, the first important southern city to fall into Union hands Go to Atlanta Campaign in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War American civil war North America United States President Lincoln is re-elected for a second term, thanks largely to recent Union successes on the Civil War battlefields Go to Lincoln, Abraham (1809–65) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States William T. Sherman reaches the coast and captures Savannah, after his violently destructive 'march to the sea' Go to March to the Sea, Sherman's in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War American civil war North America United States
1865	The Confederate government abandons Richmond, and Lee begins a retreat to the west Go to Petersburg to Richmond Campaign in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War American civil war North America United States Lincoln visits the Confederate capital at Richmond and is greeted by a jubilant crowd of freed black slaves Go to Lincoln, Abraham (1809–65) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Slavery War US presidents American civil war Society Rulers and politicians North America United States Lee surrenders to Grant at the Appomattox Court House, and is offered conciliatory terms Go to Appomattox Court House in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States On a visit to a Washington theatre, Lincoln is assassinated in his box by John Wilkes Booth Go to Booth, John Wilkes in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Terrorism and assassination War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States Vice-president Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, becomes president on the death of Republican Abraham Lincoln Go to Johnson, Andrew (1808–75) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics War US presidents American civil war Rulers and politicians North America United States The southern states pass new Black Codes, designed to limit the freedom granted to African-Americans by the victorious north Go to Black Codes (1865–66) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Persecution and repression War American civil war North America United States The Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution prohibits slavery or any 'involuntary servitude' in the USA Go to Thirteenth Amendment in The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Slavery War American civil war Society North America United States The first branch of the Ku Klux Klan is founded at Pulaski, in Tennessee, on Christmas Eve Go to Ku Klux Klan in The Concise Oxford Companion to American Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Terrorism and assassination War American civil war North America United States
1866	A Civil Rights Act is passed by the US Congress, guaranteeing the legal rights of African-Americans Go to Civil Rights Act in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics War American civil war North America United States The Fourteenth Amendment to the US constitution (not ratified till 1868) assures equal rights as citizens to all born or naturalized in the USA Go to Fourteenth Amendment in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Democracy and dissent War American civil war North America United States

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date: 24 June 2025

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