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Timeline: Europe

Years: c. 800,000 years ago - 2011	Subject: Encyclopedias, Geographical reference
Publisher: HistoryWorld	Online Publication Date: 2012
Current online version: 2012	eISBN: 9780191736155

Jump to a year:

BCE CE

Year	Event
c. 800,000 years ago	Humans are by this time living in Britain, in what is now Norfolk, and are making stone tools Go to Stone Technology in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory British Isles Britain
c. 35,000 years ago	Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers use mammoth tusks and bones to support hide-covered tents at Dolni Vestonice (in the Czech Republic) Go to hunter‐gatherers in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Science Bohemia Czech Republic The earliest known Venus figurine, with very much emphasized sexual features, is carved near the Hohle Fels cave in Germany from the tusk of a woolly mammoth Go to Venus figurine in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Science Germany
c. 31,000 years ago	Rhinoceroses, lions and mammoth feature on the walls of the Chauvet cave, in southern France Go to cave art in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Painting French painting Science French art France
c. 29,000 years ago	In the Cosquer cave near Marseilles, with its entrance now far below sea level, a hand print is made Go to marine and underwater archaeology in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Science France
c. 25,000 years ago	A Stone Age sculptor shapes a timeless image of female fecundity in the famous Willendorf Venus Go to ‘Venus of Willendorf’ in The Oxford Dictionary of Art (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Sculpture Science Austria A Brassempouy, in France, a Venus figurine is carved which is the oldest known example to have facial features Go to unenclosed settlement in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Sculpture Science France
c. 18,000 years ago	A bison figurine is carved in mammoth ivory in the region of Zaraysk, southeast of Moscow Go to cave art in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Sculpture Science Russia
c. 16,000 years ago	The walls of the complex of caves at Lascaux in France are covered, over the years, with a vast number of paintings of animals Go to Lascaux, France in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Painting Science France
c. 15,000 years ago	The walls of Altamira, an extensive cave in Spain, are decorated with paintings and engraved images of horses, deer and above all bison Go to Altamira in The Oxford Dictionary of Art (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Painting Science Spain
c. 6500 BCE	The neolithic town of Khirokitia in Cyprus has a paved public street with lanes leading off to courtyards of round tent-like houses Go to Khirokitia in The Grove Encyclopedia of Classical Art and Architecture (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Architecture Science
c. 4000 BCE	A passage grave with a superb corbelled dome is constructed on the île Longue off the southern coast of Brittany Go to passage grave in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Architecture French architecture Religion France In Mesopotamia, and on the grass steppes of southern Russia, oxen are used to pull heavy loads on sledges Go to Land Transportation in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Technology Mesopotamia Asia West Asia Iraq Russia
c. 3500 BCE	Olives are cultivated in Crete and will provide, in the form of olive oil, one of the main staples of Mediterranean trade Go to olive in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Social and domestic Greece Society
c. 3250 BCE	A neolithic herdsman dies near the Brenner Pass and is perfectly preserved in ice - to become, in 1991, by far the earliest human to be glimpsed in his everyday life, clothed and with implements Go to Similaun Man in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Social and domestic Austria Italy Society
c. 3000 BCE	The sculptors of the Cyclades produce stylized and formal figures, mainly female, in white marble Go to Cycladic art in The Oxford Companion to Western Art (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Sculpture Greece The language of a single tribe in eastern Europe, as recently as 3000 BC, is the ancestor of all modern Indo-European languages Go to Indo-European languages in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Social and domestic Society
c. 2500 BCE	A small neolithic community builds a village at Skara Brae in the Orkneys, of stone houses with built-in stone furniture Go to Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Neolithic 3100-1000 BCE Architecture British architecture Scotland British Isles Britain A superb passage grave is built at Newgrange in Ireland Go to Newgrange, Co. Meath, Ireland in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Neolithic 3100-1000 BCE Architecture British architecture Religion British Isles Ireland Britain At Stonehenge, constructed and altered over many centuries, the largest stones are put in place Go to Stonehenge in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion British Isles Britain
c. 2200 BCE	A ring of large standing stones is raised in England at Avebury, now a village in Wiltshire Go to Avebury in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Neolithic 3100-1000 BCE Religion British Isles Britain
c. 2000 BCE	Knossos, and other such palaces, are built for dynasties in Minoan Crete Go to Knossos in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture Science Greece Trade is carried on from Crete round the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily and in the east down to Egypt Go to Minoan civilization in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Neolithic 3100-1000 BCE Sicily Greece The cemetery at Los Millares in Spain contains more than 100 beehive tombs Go to Los Millares Culture in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture Religion Spain Administrative records and accounts at Knossos are kept in a script, as yet undeciphered, known as Linear A Go to Knossos in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Greece The Beaker people arrive in Britain, bringing several desirable commodities - including horses, alcohol and bronze Go to Beaker culture in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Neolithic 3100-1000 BCE Migration British Isles Society Britain
c. from 1750 BCE	Over many centuries Indo-European tribes (Greeks, Germans, Balts, Italics, Celts) move into new territories throughout western Europe Go to Indo‐European and Indo‐Europeans in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Celts Migration Society
c. 1600 BCE	A bull-fighting fresco in the palace of Knossos is linked with the island's cult of the bull Go to Knossos culture in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Painting Religion Greece
c. 1525 BCE	The eruption of a volcano, on the island of Thera, entombs and preserves houses with frescoes in the Minoan city of Akrotiri Go to Thera in The Grove Encyclopedia of Classical Art and Architecture (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Painting Greece
c. 1500 BCE	The Slavs settle in the regions of eastern Europe and western Russia Go to Slavs in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Migration Bohemia Czech Republic Poland Russia Society Indo-European tribes, speaking Baltic languages, settle in the regions of modern Lithuania and Latvia Go to Indo‐European and Indo‐Europeans in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Migration Society Texts written at Mycenae, in the script known as Linear B, are the earliest surviving version of Greek Go to Linear B in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Greece
c. 1425 BCE	All the towns and palaces of Crete, except Knossos itself, are destroyed by fire - probably by invaders from Mycenae Go to Knossos culture in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Greece
c. 1400 BCE	The massive architecture of Mycenaean cities such as Tiryns is said in Greek legend to have been built by one-eyed giants, the Cyclopes Go to Tiryns in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture Greece The so-called Treasury of Atreus, at Mycenae, is the most spectacular of the beehive tombs of this period Go to tholos in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture Greece
c. 1300 BCE	Mycenae prevails as the dominant power throughout the Peloponnese and the entire Aegean Go to Mycenaean civilization in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Greece The earliest known suit of armour, made of bronze, survives from a tomb in Mycenaean Greece Go to Mycenaean civilization in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Science War Greece Mycenaean merchants trade as far west as Spain and have links with neolithic societies far away in the interior of Europe Go to Mycenaean civilization in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Greece
c. 1200 BCE	Palaces in Mycenae are destroyed, probably by the so-called Sea Peoples from the west and south coasts of Turkey Go to Mycenaean civilization in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE War Greece Mysterious raiders from the sea cause chaos throughout the eastern Mediterranean, from Greece to Palestine and Egypt Go to Sea Peoples in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Migration Africa North Africa Asia West Asia Society
c. 1150 BCE	Mycenae and other states of the Peloponnese are overwhelmed by invading Dorian Greeks Go to Dorians in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE War Greece
c. 1100 BCE	Athens, not reached by the invading Dorians, becomes a surviving outpost of Mycenaean civilization Go to Mycenaean civilization in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Ancient Athens Greece
c. 900 BCE	With the encouragements of Athens, non-Dorian Greeks migrate to form colonies on the west coast of Anatolia Go to Anatolia in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Ancient Athens Greece
c. 850 BCE	Citium, in Cyprus, is the first of many Phoenician colonies in the Mediterranean Go to Phoenicians in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Conquest and colonization The Phoenicians Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria
776 BCE	The traditional date for the first athletic contest at Olympia Go to Olympian Games in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Sports and games Greece Society
753 BCE	This year is later selected by Roman scholars as the date of the founding of Rome, becoming the first year (AUC 1) in Roman chronology Go to calendar, Roman in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Science Greece Italy
c. 750 BCE	Ionia emerges as a political entity, forming a league of twelve Greek cities in Asia Minor Go to Ionia in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Asia West Asia Turkey Greece The Etruscans establish Italy's first civilization, in the region between the Arno and the Tiber Go to Etruscans in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Greece Italy The Homeric texts, the Iliad and the Odyssey, are written down - probably in Ionia Go to Homer in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Greek literature Literature Poetry Greece The inhabitants of Sparta organize their society on military lines and consider themselves the descendants of the Dorians Go to Sparta in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Greece
c. 704 BCE	Wrestling is included in the Olympic games, followed by a terrifying form of all-in wrestling from 652 BC Go to wrestling in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Sports and games Greece Society
c. 700 BCE	The Greeks make the Phoenician alphabet much more flexible by the addition of vowels, from alpha to omega Go to alphabet, Greek in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE The Phoenicians Greece The island of Sicily is colonized from the eastern Mediterranean by both Phoenicians and Greeks Go to Sicily in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Conquest and colonization The Phoenicians Sicily Greece Italy
688 BCE	Boxing is included in the Olympic games, with each bout going on until one fighter gives up Go to boxing in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Sports and games Greece Society
c. 667 BCE	Byzantium (the future Constantinople) is founded as a colony of Megara, a Greek city-state Go to Byzantium in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Turkey Greece
c. 650 BCE	The Greek city states make a habit of consulting the oracle at Delphi, hoping mainly for reassurance Go to Delphi in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Religion Greece The capitals of Greek pillars are by now in the two basic patterns of Doric and Ionic Go to architecture, orders of in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Architecture Greece The inhabitants of Messenia revolt against Spartan rule and are reduced, in retaliation, to the status of serfs or helots Go to helot in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Protest and rebellion Greece
c. 630 BCE	The Areopagus, named from the hill on Athens where it meets, is the council through which the nobles keep power in their own hands Go to Areopagus in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Ancient Athens Politics Greece
c. 625 BCE	Hereditary aristocrats hold nearly all political power and own most of the land in Attica Go to Areopagus in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Ancient Athens Greece
c. 600 BCE	The choros, originally danced in a circle by temple virgins, is the centrepiece of the developing Greek theatre Go to chōrus (‘dance’) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE 6th century BCE Performing arts Dance Greece Frenzied dances, in honour of the god Dionysus, become part of Greek theatre - deriving probably from the northeast, in Thrace Go to Dionysus in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE 6th century BCE Performing arts Dance Greece The free smallholding peasants of Attica fall increasingly into debt, compelled to pay a sixth of all their produce to a creditor Go to hektēmoroi in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
594 BCE	Solon is elected archon in Athens, immediately cancelling the debts of the peasants of Attica and making it illegal to enslave a debtor Go to hektēmoroi in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Politics Greece Solon makes every Athenian citizen a member of the ecclesia, responsible for the election of archons, thus laying the first cornerstone of Athenian democracy Go to Solon (c. 630–c. 560 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
585 BCE	Thales of Miletus, traditionally the first philosopher, is credited with the prediction of a solar eclipse Go to Thales of Miletus (fl. 585 bc) in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece
c. 560 BCE	Peisistratos seizes power in Athens and rules as a benevolent dictator for more than thirty years Go to Pisistratus (c. 600–c. 527 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Politics Greece
c. 550 BCE	The painters of Greek vases develop the black-figure style, with the scene depicted in black silhouette against a red ground Go to black-figure vase painting in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Arts Decorative arts Greece The Greeks develop the Babylonian theme of the zodiac, naming it the zodiakos kyklos or circle of animals Go to zodiac in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Assyria and Babylon Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece The city-states of the Peloponnese unite in a defensive league under Spartan leadership Go to Peloponnesian League in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Politics Greece The murals of Etruscan tombs, such as the Tomb of the Lionesses in Tarquinia, give a lively glimpse of an earlier tradition in Greek art Go to Etruscan style in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Arts Painting Italian painting Italian art Greece Italy An Etruscan dynasty rules in Rome and Etruscan influence is now dominant throughout central Italy Go to Etruscans in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Rome Greece Italy The hoplite - a Greek citizen, heavily armed in bronze and leather - proves a formidable fighting man Go to hoplite in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE War Greece The phalanx, though not originally devised in Greece, is a devastating formation on the battlefield when composed of hoplites Go to hoplite in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE War Greece The Greek city states pioneer the use of citizen armies, made up of free men who bring their own fighting equipment Go to hoplite in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE War Greece
c. 545 BCE	Cyrus annexes the Greek territory of Ionia as part of his empire, giving Persia a presence on the Aegean Go to Cyrus in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions
534 BCE	Thespis, traditionally considered the first actor, wins the drama competition in Athens Go to Thespis in The Concise Oxford Companion to the Theatre (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Performing arts Theatre Greece
c. 530 BCE	The Greek colonists of Paestum, in southern Italy, build the first of their three superb temples Go to Paestum in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Architecture Italian architecture Greece Italy
c. 529 BCE	The Greek mathematician Pythagoras establishes himself, along with his followers, in southern Italy Go to Pythagoras (c.580–500 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Greek science Science Greece Italy
510 BCE	The Athenian ruler Hippias is toppled by the nobles of Attica, with the help of Sparta Go to Hippias in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece Hecateus, a geographer in Miletus, produces a map showing the Greek idea of the known world Go to Hecataeus in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Greek science Science Greece According to legend, the Etruscans are driven from Rome by popular outrage after the rape of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius Go to Lucretia (Europe) in A Dictionary of World Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Politics Rome Italy The Roman senate becomes an executive body with two of its members elected annually as consuls, or joint heads of state Go to Roman Senate in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Politics Greece Italy
508 BCE	Cleisthenes, brought to power by popular support, puts into effect a major programme of political reform in Athens See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Politics Democracy and dissent Greece Cleisthenes gives every Athenian citizen a voice in the demos, the local council at village or town level See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
c. 500 BCE	The Greeks are intrigued by the iron-attracting property of a mineral which they find in the district of Magnesia Go to magnetite in A Dictionary of Chemistry (6 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Greek science Science Physics Greece The Isthmian games at Corinth are by now a regular event, as are the Pythian games and the Nemean games Go to Isthmian Games in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Sports and games Greece Society The Greeks observe the strange effect of electricity, seen when amber (known to them as electron) is rubbed Go to amber in A Dictionary of Biology (6 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Greek science Science Physics Greece The new and more sophisticated fashion in Greek vases is the red-figure style Go to Greek pottery in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Arts Decorative arts Greece The Lapps, hunters of reindeer, have Scandinavia to themselves before the arrival of Germanic tribes See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Migration Society Parmenides is the first pure philosopher, using logic as a philosophical tool in his poem Nature See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Greek literature Literature Philosophy Greece The Celts, moving west from central Europe, settle in France and northern Spain Go to Celt in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Celts Migration Spain Society The followers of Pythagoras discover the mathematical basis of the octave Go to octave in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Performing arts Music Greece Italy The Greeks add a third bank of oars to their war galleys, turning the bireme into a trireme Go to trireme in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE War Greece
499 BCE	The Greek cities of Ionia rebel against Persian rule, with the partial support of Athens Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions
c. 495 BCE	Pericles is born in Attica, the son of distinguished parents and the great-nephew of Cleisthenes Go to Pericles (c.495–29 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
493 BCE	After six years the Persians recover control of Ionia, but Athens is now identified as a target for invasion Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions
490 BCE	Darius sends a fleet across the Aegean, carrying a large army of infantry and cavalry for an attack on Athens Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions The Persian fleet secures the Greek island of Euboea before making the short crossing to Marathon on the mainland – where they await the Greeks Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Greece Wars and Revolutions Pheidippides, given the task of running from Athens to Sparta to request help against the Persians, completes the journey in two days Go to Pheidippides in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens Travel and transport War Greece Society Wars and Revolutions At Marathon the Athenian hoplites, heavily outnumbered, win a spectacular victory against the Persians – of whom the survivors escape in their ships Go to Marathon, battle of in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions
487 BCE	Ostracism is introduced in Athens as a way of getting rid of unpopular politicians Go to o'stracism in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Politics Democracy and dissent Greece
484 BCE	Aeschylus wins the prize for tragedy at the City Dionysia in Athens Go to Aeschylus (525?–456 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Performing arts Theatre Literature Drama Poetry Greece
483 BCE	Themistocles persuades the Athenians to build up their fleet against the expected renewal of the threat from Persia Go to Themistocles (c. 528–462 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions
481 BCE	Xerxes I, renewing the campaign of his father Darius against the Greeks, leads a large army round the Aegean and through Thrace Go to Xerxes I in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions The Greek city-states meet in Corinth to devise a joint strategy against the Persians Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Politics War Greece Wars and Revolutions
c. 480 BCE	Kritios sculpts a naturalistic male nude, now the earliest surviving masterpiece in a central tradition of Greek art Go to Critius in The Oxford Dictionary of Art (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Arts Sculpture Greece 300 Spartans, led by Leonidas, die attempting to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the advancing Persian army Go to Leonidas (480 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Greece Wars and Revolutions Athens, abandoned to the advancing Persians, is looted and destroyed Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions The Athenian fleet defeats a considerably larger Persian force in the narrow strait between Salamis and the mainland Go to Salamis, Battle of (480 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Greece Wars and Revolutions
479 BCE	A Spartan army, led by Pausanias, wins a victory at Plataea, completing the rout of the Persians on the Greek mainland Go to Plataea, battle of (479 bc) in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Greece Wars and Revolutions An Athenian force destroys at Mykale the remainder of the Persian fleet, ending the threat from them at sea Go to My'calē in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions
478 BCE	In the last joint campaign by Sparta and Athens the strategically important city of Byzantium is liberated from Persian rule Go to Byzantium in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens War Turkey Wars and Revolutions Representatives of Athens and other Aegean city-states meet in Delos to form a coalition, later known as the Delian League Go to Delian League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens Politics War Greece Wars and Revolutions The Delian League is formed for mutual defence, but also to liberate the Greek cities of Ionia from Persian rule Go to Delian League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Ancient Athens Politics War Asia West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions
477 BCE	A life-size bronze of a racing chariot, with its driver and horses, is presented to Delphi to commemorate a victory in the games Go to Delphi Charioteer in The Oxford Dictionary of Art (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Arts Sculpture Greece
472 BCE	The Olympic games are extended to five days, the first and last of which are taken up with religious ceremonies Go to Olympian Games in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Sports and games Greece Society
468 BCE	Sophocles wins the prize for tragedy in Athens, defeating Aeschylus in the competition Go to Sophocles in The Oxford Companion to World Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Performing arts Theatre Literature Drama Poetry Greece
c. 465 BCE	Pericles is one of a radical group in Athens, eager to curb the reactionaries controlling the Areopagus, and hostile to Sparta Go to Areopagus in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
464 BCE	An earthquake in Sparta leads to an uprising by the helots, who take up a defensive position on Mount Ithome Go to Ithō'mē, Mount in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Politics Protest and rebellion Greece
463 BCE	Sparta appeals to its allies for help against the helots, and Athens - against the wishes of Pericles and his group - sends an army Go to Peloponne'sian War, First in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
462 BCE	With the army away, Pericles introduces full democracy for all Athenian citizens, enabling them to vote and participate in the administration of the state Go to Athenian democracy in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Politics Democracy and dissent Greece Sparta causes offence in Athens by dismissing the Athenian army without using them against the helots Go to Peloponne'sian War, First in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
461 BCE	Athens makes provocative alliances with two city-states opposed to Sparta Go to Peloponne'sian War, First in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece Pericles is given the task of constructing Athens' two famous Long Walls, stretching from the city to either side of the harbour at Piraeus Go to Long Walls in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens War Greece
c. 460 BCE	Herodotus, the 'father of history', writes his account of the Greco-Persian Wars from a vantage point in Asia Minor Go to Herodotus (c. 490–c. 425 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Greco-Persian Wars Literature War Asia West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions Simmering hostilities between the allies of Sparta and Athens develop into endemic conflict among the Greek city states of the Peloponnese Go to Peloponne'sian War, First in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions
457 BCE	Athens completes its famous Long Walls, providing protected access between the city and its harbour, at Piraeus Go to Long Walls in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
454 BCE	Euripides enters the drama contest at the City Dionysia in Athens for the first time Go to Euripides (c.480–c.450 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Performing arts Theatre Literature Drama Poetry Greece The Athenians transfer into their own keeping the accumulated treasure of the Delian League Go to Delian League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Politics Greece Pericles' power is greatly increased when he is put in charge of the funds of the Delian league Go to Delian League in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
c. 450 BCE	Empedocles states that all matter is made up of four elemental substances - earth, fire, air and water Go to Empedocles of Acragas (c.495–c.435 bc) in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek science Science Chemistry Greece The followers of Pythagoras maintain that the earth revolves on its own axis and moves in an orbit Go to Philolāus in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece Italy The Athenians mount successful attacks on the Persian forces occupying the Greek island of Cyprus Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars War Wars and Revolutions The Sophists, professional philosophers, travel round Greece educating the sons of the rich Go to sophists in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Literature Philosophy Greece Pericles introduces payment in Athens for jury service so that no citizen is excluded by poverty Go to juries in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
448 BCE	In the Peace of Kallias the Persians acknowledge the independence of Greek Ionia, and agree not to bring their fleet into the Aegean Go to Callias, Peace of in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Politics War Asia West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions
447 BCE	The Athenians begin building the Parthenon, a temple to Athena, which they complete within ten years Go to Parthenon in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Architecture Greece Ictinos, the architect of the Parthenon, blends Doric and Ionic elements in a way which will later influence many other Greek temples Go to Ictīnus in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Architecture Greece
c. 446 BCE	Phidias sculpts a huge statue of the goddess Athena, to be the central feature of the new Parthenon See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Arts Sculpture Greece An army commanded by a Spartan king turns back mysteriously during an invasion of Attica, leading to rumours that Pericles has bribed the king Go to Periclēs (c.495–429 bc) in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece Pericles negotiates a treaty, scheduled to hold for thirty years, establishing spheres of influence for Sparta (the mainland) and Athens (the Aegean coast and islands) Go to Thirty Years Peace in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens Politics War Greece Wars and Revolutions
443-429 BCE	Pericles is selected by the assembly as the leading general of Athens, a post to which he is re-appointed every year until his death Go to Pericles (c.495–29 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens War Greece
c. 440 BCE	Myron sculpts the Discus Thrower, an outstanding example of the Greek ability to suggest movement Go to Myron in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Arts Sculpture Greece Under Pericles, colonies and garrisons are established in strategic areas with the colonists remaining Athenian citizens Go to cleruchy in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece An extensive trading network, backed up by force, gives Athens control over the whole of the Aegean and the Black Sea Go to cleruchy in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
423 BCE	Socrates is now sufficiently prominent to be satirized in Clouds, a comedy by Aristophanes Go to Aristophanes (c.448–c.380 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Performing arts Theatre Literature Drama Philosophy Poetry Greece
433 BCE	Pericles breaches his own Thirty Years Treaty, sending 30 triremes in support of a city state in dispute with Corinth, an ally of Sparta Go to Thirty Years Peace in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens War Greece Sparta demands withdrawal of the Athenian ships from the Peloponnesian coast, but Pericles will offer only independent arbitration Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Ancient Athens Greece
431 BCE	A sudden attack on Plataea (an ally of Athens) by Thebes (an ally of Sparta) begins the Second Peloponnesian War Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions The renewal of the Peloponnesian War prompts Thucydides to begin a great work of contemporary history Go to Thucydides (c.460/455–c.400 bc) in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Peloponnesian Wars Literature War Greece Wars and Revolutions
c. 430 BCE	Phidias creates a massive statue of Zeus, covered in gold and ivory, to stand in the temple at Olympia See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Seven Wonders of the World Arts Sculpture Greece A plague strikes Athens in the second year of the Peloponnesian War Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions
429 BCE	Pericles dies in Athens of the plague Go to Pericles (c.495–29 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greece
427 BCE	Athenians vote to kill all the men on the captured island of Mytilene, but the next day change their mind - almost too late Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions
c. 425 BCE	Aristophanes wins first prize in Athens for his comedy The Acharnians Go to Aristophanes (c.448–c.380 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Performing arts Theatre Literature Drama Poetry Greece
c. 420 BCE	The Greek philosopher Democritus declares that matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible atoms Go to atomism in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek science Science Chemistry Greece
416 BCE	The Athenians, capturing Melos, kill all the males of the island and sell the women and children into slavery Go to Mēlos in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens Politics Conquest and colonization Slavery War Greece Society Wars and Revolutions
414 BCE	The Persians, renewing their interest in the Aegean, fund the Spartans in the building of a fleet to match that of Athens Go to Peloponnesian War in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Asia Central Asia Iran (Persia) West Asia Turkey Greece Wars and Revolutions
c. 410 BCE	The Greeks develop the three classical styles of column, the Doric, the Ionic and the Corinthian Go to architecture, orders of in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Architecture Greece
409 BCE	A Carthaginian army lands near Marsala to begin the long involvement of Carthage in Sicily Go to Sicily in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Sicily Africa North Africa Greece Italy
405 BCE	The last remaining Athenian fleet is surprised and destroyed by the Spartans in the Hellespont Go to Aegospotami, Battle of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Battles Greece Wars and Revolutions
404 BCE	The famous Long Walls of Athens, her impregnable defence, are dismantled by the Spartans in the final act of the Peloponnesian War Go to Long Walls in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Peloponnesian Wars Ancient Athens War Greece Wars and Revolutions
401 BCE	Greek mercenaries, on the losing side at Cunaxa, begin a long journey home - described by Xenophon in the Anabasis Go to Ana'băsis (‘Cyrus' expedition inland’) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greek literature Literature War Greece
c. 400 BCE	Hippocrates, on the Greek island of Kos, founds an influential school of medicine Go to Hippocrates in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE 4th century BCE Greek science Science Medicine Greece
399 BCE	Socrates, convicted in Athens of impiety, is sentenced to death and drinks the hemlock Go to Socrates (469–399 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Literature Philosophy Social and domestic Greece Society
396 BCE	The Romans capture the nearby Etruscan town of Veii, beginning a long process of territorial expansion Go to Veii in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Greece Italy
390 BCE	Celtic tribes , pushing south through the Alps, reach Rome and sack the city Go to Celt in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Celts Politics Rome Greece Italy Society
387 BCE	Plato establishes a school in Akademeia, a suburb of Athens Go to Academy in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Literature Philosophy Greece
c. 380 BCE	Central to Plato's philosophy is the theory that there are higher Forms of reality, of which our senses perceive only a transient shadow Go to Plato (c. 429–c. 347 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greek literature Literature Philosophy Greece A Greek text, attributed to Polybus, argues that the human body is composed of four humours Go to four humours in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greek science Science Chemistry Life sciences Greece
371 BCE	A Spartan army is overwhelmed at Leuctra by a smaller number of Thebans under Epaminondas Go to Leuctra in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE War Battles Greece
367 BCE	Aristotle, at the age of seventeen, comes to Athens to join Plato's academy Go to Aristotle (384–322 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greek literature Ancient Athens Literature Philosophy Greece
356 BCE	Philip II sets about making Macedon the most powerful state in Greece Go to Philip II (382–336 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Greece Alexander the Great is born in Pella, the capital of his father Philip II, at the heart of the expanding Macedonian kingdom Go to Alexander III (356–323bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Greece
c. 350 BCE	Eudoxus of Cnidus proposes the concept of transparent spheres supporting the bodies visible in the heavens Go to Eudoxus of Cnidus (c.400 bc–350 bc) in A Dictionary of Scientists (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece Private financiers in Athens give loans, take deposits, change money from one currency to another and arrange credit for travellers Go to credit in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Ancient Athens Commerce and industry Greece Society The earliest description of a pulley appears in a Greek text Go to pulley in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Technology Inventions and discoveries Greece
348 BCE	The citizens of Olynthus abandon their houses, with elaborate mosaic floors, when their city is attacked by Philip of Macedon Go to Olynthus in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Arts Greece
343 BCE	Aristotle is employed in Macedon as tutor to the 13-year-old heir to the throne, Alexander Go to Aristotle (384–322 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greece
c. 340 BCE	The theatre at Epidaurus is the earliest and best surviving example of a classical Greek stage and auditorium Go to Epidaurus, Theatre of in The Oxford Companion to Theatre and Performance (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Architecture Performing arts Theatre Greece Alexander the Great, at the age of sixteen, conducts his first successful military campaign – against the Thracians Go to Alexander III (“The Great”) in The Oxford Guide to People and Places of the Bible (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE War Greece The Macedonians develop the catapult as a siege engine for the armies of Philip II and Alexander the Great Go to artillery in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Weapons Greece
338 BCE	Philip of Macedon defeats Athens and Thebes at Chaeronaea, giving him control of Greece Go to Chaeronea in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Ancient Athens War Battles Greece
337 BCE	Philip of Macedon persuades most of the Greek city-states, brought together in Corinth, to agree to a military alliance with himself as leader Go to Corinth, League of in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Greece
335 BCE	Before departing for the east, Alexander destroys Thebes and enslaves the Thebans for rebelling against the League of Corinth Go to Thebes in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Greece
c. 330 BCE	Aristotle tackles wide-ranging subjects on a systematic basis, leaving to his successors an encyclopedia of contemporary thought Go to Aristotle (384–322 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Greek literature Greek science Literature Philosophy Science Greece
312 BCE	The first Roman road, the Via Appia, links Rome with Capua Go to via Appia in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Travel and transport Technology Engineering Rome Greece Italy Society
c. 310 BCE	Pytheas, a Greek explorer, sails up the west coast of Britain and finds beyond it a more northerly land which he calls Thule Go to Pytheas (c. 310–306 bc) in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Exploration British Isles Society Britain
c. 300 BCE	The Celts move across the Channel into Britain, soon becoming the dominant ethnic group in the island Go to Celt in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE Celts Migration British Isles Society Britain The Greek author Theophrastus writes On the History of Plants, the earliest surviving work on botany Go to Theophrastus (c. 372 bc–287 bc) in A Dictionary of Scientists (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE Greek science Science Life sciences Greece The flexibility of the Roman legion transforms the Greek phalanx into an even more effective fighting machine Go to Roman legion in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE War Greece Italy Vesta, goddess of the hearth, is served in Rome by virgin priestesses who tend the sacred flame in her shrine Go to Vestal virgin in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE Religion Rome Greece Italy Epicurus postulates a universe of indestructible atoms in which man himself is responsible for achieving a balanced life Go to Epicureanism in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE Greek science Science Chemistry Greece
299 BCE	The Roman siege technique is improved by the 'tortoise' which protects the attacking force Go to testudo in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Weapons Greece Italy
292 BCE	The Colossus, a giant statue of Helios the sun god, is erected beside the harbour of Rhodes Go to Colossus in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Seven Wonders of the World Arts Sculpture Greece
281 BCE	Pyrrhus lands in Italy, with 25,000 men and 20 elephants, to fight for the Greek colony of Tarentum against the Romans Go to Pyrrhus of Epiros (319–272 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization War Greece Italy
c. 270 BCE	On the small Greek island of Samos an astronomer, Aristarchus, comes to the startling conclusion that the earth is in orbit round the sun Go to Aristarchus of Samos (c.320–c.250 bc) in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece
264 BCE	A clash in Sicily, between Rome and Carthage, leads to the First Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Rome Sicily Africa North Africa Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions The first gladiatorial contests in Rome are part of the entertainment at a funeral, and soon become popular Go to gladiator in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Performing arts Rome Greece Italy
260 BCE	A Carthaginian quinquereme, captured by the Romans, is used as the model for the first Roman fleet - constructed in two months Go to quinquereme in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions The new Roman fleet wins a decisive victory over the Carthaginians at Mylae, thanks largely to the 'raven' (corvus in Latin) Go to quinquereme in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Italy Wars and Revolutions
c. 250 BCE	Archimedes (it is said) leaps out of his bath shouting eureka ('I have found it') when he perceives how to test for relative density Go to Archimedes' principle in A New Dictionary of Eponyms (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Greek science Science Physics Greece The Romans evolve a system of numerals which, until the end of the Middle Ages, is a handicap to western arithmetic Go to Roman numeral in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Science Greece Italy To help the king of Syracuse extract water from the hold of a ship (so the story goes), Archimedes invents the screw now known by his name Go to Archimedes' screw in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Technology Inventions and discoveries Greece Italy
241 BCE	A Roman naval victory at Trapani, off the northwest tip of Sicily, completes the blockade of the Carthaginians and ends the First Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Sicily Africa North Africa Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions At the end of the First Punic War, Sicily becomes Rome's first overseas province Go to Sicily in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Sicily Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
c. 240 BCE	Spain, with its mines of gold, silver and copper, is a hotly disputed region between Carthage and Rome Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Spain Wars and Revolutions
228 BCE	Hamilcar Barca dies fighting in Spain, after establishing a strong Carthaginian presence in the peninsula Go to Hamilcar Barca (c.229 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Spain Wars and Revolutions
227 BCE	Sardinia and Corsica are annexed by Rome, becoming the second Roman overseas province Go to Sardinia in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
c. 225 BCE	A treaty defines the Ebro river as the Spanish boundary between Carthage and Rome Go to Hasdrubal(1) in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics War Spain Wars and Revolutions
221 BCE	Hannibal succeeds to the command of the Carthaginian forces in Spain, on the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal Go to Hannibal (c.247–c.183 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Spain Wars and Revolutions
c. 220 BCE	The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes calculates the circumference of the world with the help of shadows and camels Go to Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275–195bc ) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Mathematics (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Greek science Science Greece
218 BCE	Hannibal crosses the Alps with his elephants, beginning the Second Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
217 BCE	Hannibal surprises and traps a Roman army on a narrow plain beside Lake Trasimene Go to Lake Trasimene, battle of (217 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Italy Wars and Revolutions
216 BCE	Hannibal destroys a Roman army at Cannae, in the most severe defeat ever suffered by Rome Go to Cannae, Battle of (216 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
201 BCE	Carthaginian Spain is handed over to Rome to become two new provinces, at the end of the Second Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War Rome Greece Spain Wars and Revolutions
196 BCE	The Romans, after defeating Macedon, announce at the Isthmian Games that all Greek states are now free under Roman protection Go to Flāminī'nus, Titus Qui'nctius (c.229–174 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Greece Italy
188 BCE	Sparta's ancient political system comes to an end, but the ordeal by flogging lingers on as a tourist attraction in the temple of Artemis Go to Spartan cults in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Social and domestic Greece Society
c. 185 BCE	Plautus and Terence, in the second and third century BC, create a Roman drama based on Greek originals Go to Plautus, Titus Maccius (c.250–184 bc) in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Greek literature Latin literature Performing arts Theatre Literature Drama Greece Italy
c. 160 BCE	The Roman statesman Cato the Elder writes Origines ('Origins'), a history of Rome which survives only in fragments See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Latin literature Literature Rome Italy
149 BCE	Rome picks a quarrel with Carthage to begin the Third Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
146 BCE	Carthage is destroyed by the Romans at the end of the Third Punic War Go to Carthage in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Punic Wars War Africa North Africa Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
c. 140 BCE	The Greek astronomer Hipparchus is credited with the invention of the astrolabe, measuring the angle of sun or star above the horizon Go to Hipparchus of Nicaea (c.190–c.120 bc) in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece
139 BCE	A secret ballot is instituted for Roman citizens, who mark their vote on a tablet and place it in an urn Go to elections and voting in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Politics Democracy and dissent Greece Italy
133 BCE	The tribune Tiberius Gracchus is murdered by a mob which includes Roman senators Go to Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (c. 163–133bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Politics Terrorism and assassination Italy
c. 130 BCE	The Greek astronomer Hipparchus, mapping the stars, observes but cannot explain the precession of the equinoxes Go to precession of the equinoxes in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece Hipparchus proposes a grid of 360° of latitude and longitude for mapmaking Go to Hipparchus of Nicaea (c.190–c.120 bc) in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Greek science Science Greece
129 BCE	Hipparchus completes the first scientific star catalogue, mapping some 850 stars Go to Hipparchus of Nicaea (c.190–c.120 bc) in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Greek science Science Astronomy and space Greece
121 BCE	The Romans establish a province in the south of France, still acknowledged in the name Provence Go to Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (France) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization France The tribune Gaius Gracchus is murdered by an armed group, led by a consul, after which 3000 of his supporters are rounded up and executed Go to Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (c. 163–133bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Politics Terrorism and assassination Italy
102 BCE	The Roman general Gaius Marius defeats the Teutones, a German tribe which has made deep inroads into southern Gaul Go to Teutons in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Migration Battles France Society
101 BCE	A German tribe, the Cimbri, press into northern Italy until they are defeated at Vercellae and driven out of the peninsula Go to Cimbri in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Migration Battles Italy Society
c. 100 BCE	A Venus is carved in marble, and centuries later becomes an ideal of female beauty after being found on the island of Milo Go to Venus de Milo in The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE Arts Sculpture Greece
90 BCE	A three-year war, known as the Social War, breaks out between Rome and her Italian allies Go to Social Wars in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE War Rome Italy
88 BCE	The Roman general Sulla takes the unprecedented step of marching upon Rome with a Roman army, to restore his own faction to power Go to Sulla, Publius Cornelius (c.138–78bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Protest and rebellion War Rome Italy
86 BCE	Sulla, campaigning to the east, besieges Athens and then allows his army to loot the city Go to Sulla, Publius Cornelius (c.138–78bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Ancient Athens Politics Conquest and colonization War Greece Italy Gaius Marius, uncle of Julius Caesar, marches on Rome and massacres many of the supporters of Sulla See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
82 BCE	Sulla takes Rome for the second time, after a battle at the Colline Gate, and then publishes his lethal 'proscriptions' Go to proscriptions in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Protest and rebellion War Battles Rome Italy Sulla launches a massacre of his opponents and Julius Caesar is lucky to escape with his life, but his inheritance is confiscated Go to Sulla, Lucius Cornelius in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
81 BCE	Cicero, whose speeches become models of oratory, makes his first appearance in a Roman court Go to Cicero, Marcus Tullius in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Literature Greece Italy
78 BCE	Sulla dies and Caesar returns to Rome, taking up a legal career as an advocate Go to Caesar, Julius (100–44 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
75 BCE	To improve his skills as an orator, Julius Caesar travels to Rhodes to study with Cicero's teacher, Apollonius Molon Go to Apollonius (9) Molon in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Greece Italy Julius Caesar, captured by pirates on his way to Rhodes, warns them that he will crucify them - and later keeps his word Go to crucifixion in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Greece Italy
73 BCE	A rebellion by Spartacus and other slaves from a gladiators' training camp at Capua lasts for two years before it is suppressed Go to Spartacus in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Protest and rebellion Greece Italy
67 BCE	Julius Caesar marries Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla and a distant relative of Pompey Go to Pompeia in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
63 BCE	Caesar is elected Pontifex Maximus, the chief priest of the Roman state religion Go to Pontifex Maximus in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
62 BCE	An unproven rumour about Pompeia causes Caesar to divorce her on the grounds that 'Caesar's wife must be above suspicion' Go to Caesar in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
61 BCE	Caesar's numerous creditors prevent him leaving Rome until the immensely wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus stands bail for some of his debts Go to Crassus, Marcus Licinius (c. 115–53 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
60 BCE	Back in Rome, Caesar stands in the election to become one of the two consuls for the year 59, and wins Go to Caesar, Julius (100–44 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy Julius Caesar persuades Pompey and Crassus to join him in a political alliance to their mutual advantage, known now as the first triumvirate See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Greece Italy
59 BCE	The alliance between Pompey and Caesar is sealed when Pompey marries Caesar's only daughter, Julia Go to Pompey (106–48 bc) (‘the Great’ in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy Caesar and Pompey use violence and intimidation to force through the senate a bill giving public land to retired soldiers (with Pompey's men at the head of the queue) Go to Pompey (106–48 bc) (‘the Great’ in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
58 BCE	At the end of his year as consul, Caesar travels north to become governor of northern Italy and southern France Go to Caesar, Julius in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization France Greece Italy Julius Caesar begins the long slow process of pushing Roman occupation steadily northwards in France (or Gaul) Go to Gallic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE France Greece
55 BCE	Julius Caesar makes the first of his two invasions of Celtic Britain Go to Gallic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Roman Britain Celts Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Greece Society Britain
54 BCE	Julius Caesar returns to Britain for a second visit, this time reaching north of the Thames into the kingdom of Cassivellaunus Go to Cassivellaunus in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Greece Britain
53 BCE	The death of Crassus at Carrhae brings to an end the first triumvirate Go to Crassus, Marcus Licinius in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Asia West Asia Turkey Greece Italy
52 BCE	The Celtic leader Vercingetorix inflicts an unaccustomed defeat on Julius Caesar, at Gergovia, but is captured later in the year Go to Vercingetorix in A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Celts Politics Conquest and colonization Battles France Greece Society In his winter quarters Julius Caesar writes The Gallic War, an account of his own achievements in suppressing the Gauls Go to Gaul in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Literature Politics Conquest and colonization France Greece
c. 50 BCE	A body preserved in the tannin of Lindow Moss, an English peat bog, is probably a sacrificial victim of the Druids Go to Lindow Man in A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Religion British Isles Britain Gladiators have metal studs on their boxing gloves, and a public bout is expected to go on until the loser dies Go to boxing in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Sports and games Greece Italy Society The senate, controlled by Pompey and his faction, orders Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome Go to Ru'bicon in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
49 BCE	Julius Caesar crosses the river Rubicon (the southern boundary of Gaul) with his army – and in doing so launches a civil war See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty War Greece Italy Pompey flees from Rome at the approach of Caesar, and boards a ship at Brindisi to sail eastwards Go to Pompey (106–48 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy Julius Caesar moves fast to drive Pompey's supporters from Italy and to crush forces loyal to him in Spain Go to Pharsalus, battle of (48 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy
48 BCE	Julius Caesar defeats his rival Pompey at Pharsalus, in Greece, and makes himself master of the Roman world Go to Pharsalus, Battle of (48 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles Greece Italy
47 BCE	Cleopatra gives birth to a son and calls him Ptolemy XV Caesar (later known by the nickname Caesarion) Go to Caesa'rion (‘little Caesar’) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy
46 BCE	Vercingetorix is a prize exhibit in Caesar's great triumph in Rome, but the Celtic chieftain is strangled once the procession is over Go to Vercingetorix in A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Celts Politics Greece Italy Society Julius Caesar goes to Africa to confront the remainder of Pompey's forces, and defeats them at Thapsus – but two of Pompey's sons escape to Spain Go to Caesar, Julius (100–44 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Spain Cleopatra travels to Rome with Caesarion, whom Caesar now officially recognizes as his son Go to Caesa'rion (‘little Caesar’) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome
45 BCE	In the final act of his long struggle with supporters of Pompey, Julius Caesar defeats their last survivors at Munda in Spain Go to Munda in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Spain Julius Caesar's new calendar is introduced, at a time when its predecessor has become out of step with the seasons by three months Go to calendar, Roman in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Science Astronomy and space Greece Italy
44 BCE	On March 15, the Ides of March, Julius Caesar is stabbed to death during a meeting of the senate Go to Caesar, Julius (100–44 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Terrorism and assassination Greece Italy Mark Antony gives a dramatic speech in praise of Caesar, calming the crowd but also positioning himself for the next stage in an ongoing power struggle Go to Mark Antony (83–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Italy Octavian, an 18-year-old student in Apollonia, hears that he has been named by his uncle, Julius Caesar, as his successor and heir Go to Augustus (63 bc–ad 14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Greece Italy Soon after the assassination of Caesar, Cleopatra and Caesarion return to Egypt Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE
43 BCE	Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus meet in Bologna and form an alliance known as the second triumvirate Go to triumvirate in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Italy
42 BCE	Octavian and Mark Antony defeat the armies of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, after which Brutus and Cassius commit suicide Go to Mark Antony (83–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE War Battles Greece Italy After their victory at Philippi, Octavian returns to Rome and Mark Antony remains in the east to control the extremities of the empire Go to Mark Antony (83–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome
37 BCE	Virgil's reputation is established by his ten Eclogues, influenced by the Italian countryside in the region of his birth near Mantua Go to Virgil (70–19 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Literature Poetry Greece Italy
c. 34 BCE	Maecenas buys a farm for Horace, in the Sabine hills near Tivoli - the most fruitful of his many acts of patronage Go to Maecenas (d. 8 bc) in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Literature Greece Italy
31 BCE	Octavian defeats the forces of Antony and Cleopatra (both are at sea with their fleets) in a battle off the Greek coast at Actium Go to Actium, Battle of (31 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE War Battles Greece Italy
29 BCE	When Octavian's Egyptian hoard reaches Rome, the standard rate of interest falls from 12% to 4% Go to Augustus (63 bc–ad 14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Italy
27 BCE	Octavian is given the life-long title of Augustus by the senate in Rome, becoming in effect the first Roman emperor Go to Augustus (63 bc–ad 14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Greece Italy Empires Livy begins writing and publishing his History of Rome, a task which will occupy him for forty years Go to Livy (59 bc–17ad) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Roman empire Literature Greece Italy Empires
23 BCE	The first three books of Horace's Odes are published, written on his Sabine farm Go to Horace (c.65℃08 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Roman empire Literature Poetry Greece Italy Empires
c. 20 BCE	The excellence of the arts, particularly literature, during the reign of Augustus Caesar causes it to be remembered as a golden age of culture Go to Augustus (63 bc–ad 14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Roman empire Literature Greece Italy Empires A collection of witty love poems, entitled Amores, brings Ovid an early success Go to Ovid (43 bc–ad 18) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Roman empire Literature Poetry Greece Italy Empires Augustus Caesar puts a team of surveyors to work mapping the empire's 50,000 miles of roads, a task which will take them twenty years Go to Augustus (63 bc–ad 14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Roman empire Politics Greece Italy Empires Roman author Vitruvius writes De Architectura, now generally known as The Ten Books of Architecture Go to Vitrū'vius Po'llio in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Roman empire Architecture Italian architecture Greece Italy Empires The Netherlands, or 'low countries' around the Rhine delta, enter history as the Roman province of Germania Inferior Go to Germania in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Roman empire Politics Conquest and colonization Belgium Netherlands Empires
19 BCE	Virgil dies just after completing the Aeneid, and imperial command from Augustus Caesar prevents his executor from destroying the epic Go to Aeneid in The Oxford Companion to World Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Latin literature Roman empire Literature Greece Italy Empires
c. 10 BCE	The period of stability achieved during the reign of Augustus Caesar has been given the name Pax Romana ('Roman peace') Go to Pax Augusta (‘The Augustan [or Roman] Peace’) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Commerce and industry Greece Italy Society Empires
4	After the death of two of his grandsons, the emperor Augustus formally adopts his stepson Tiberius as his successor Go to Tiberius in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires Augustus Caesar insists on Tiberius adopting as his successor Germanicus, a talented young member of the imperial family Go to Iulius Caesar, Germanicus in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
5	Germanicus, designated eventual heir to the throne, marries Agrippina, granddaughter of the ruling emperor Go to Agrippina the Elder (c.14 bc–ad 33) in Who's Who in the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
14	The death of Augustus introduces half a century of chaos, as the members of his family compete ruthlessly for power Go to Tiberius in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Greece Italy Empires Tiberius succeeds his stepfather Augustus Caesar as the Roman emperor Go to Tiberius in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
19	Germanicus, nephew and heir of the emperor Tiberius, dies when far away with the army in Syria Go to Iulius Caesar, Germanicus in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria Italy Empires
c. 20	The Romans construct the massive Pont du Gard to bring water to the city of Nîmes Go to Pont du Gard in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Architecture France Empires
37	Within the tangled and tormented web of the Roman imperial family, Gaius Caesar - nicknamed Caligula - inherits the throne Go to Caligula (12–41 ad) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
c. 40	The death of Cymbeline is a prelude to the renewed Roman invasion of Celtic Britain Go to Cymbeline (c.42 ad) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman Britain Celts Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Society Britain
41	Claudius, after the assassination of his nephew Caligula, is selected as emperor by the praetorian guards Go to Claudius (ad 41–54) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
43	The Romans invade Britain and the tribal leader Caractacus fails to hold them in an encounter near the Medway Go to Caractacus in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization Empires Britain The emperor Claudius catches up with the Roman army, waiting at the Thames for him to lead the final victory over the English tribes Go to Claudius (ad 41–54) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization Empires Britain The Roman emperor Claudius reaches Colchester, where a temple is erected to him as a god Go to Claudius (ad 41–54) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Roman Britain Religion Empires Britain
47	Roman legions build the Fosse Way, a raised road with a ditch on each side stretching from Lincoln to Devon Go to Fosse Way in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Roman Britain Travel and transport Technology Engineering Society Empires Britain
c. 48	St Paul, taking ship to Cyprus, begins the first of his great missionary journeys Go to Paul, St (c.64) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Religion Christianity Asia West Asia Empires St Paul, on his travels within the Roman empire, begins converting non-Jews (or Gentiles) to the new Christian faith Go to Paul, St (c.64) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Religion Christianity Judaism Asia West Asia Empires
c. 50	The Roman surgeon Cornelius Celsus describes in De Medicina how to cut stones from a patient's bladder Go to Cornelius Celsus, Aulus in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Science Medicine Italy Empires The Thessalonians receive the first of Paul's epistles - the earliest text in the New Testament, written in Greek Go to Paul, St (c.65 ce) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Religion Christianity Greece A western adaptation of the Persian cult of Mithras, evolving probably in Anatolia, is spread through the empire by the Roman army Go to Mithras in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Religion Africa North Africa Asia West Asia Empires A working week of seven days is adopted in Rome, based on the seven known planets (whose names provide the days) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Social and domestic Greece Italy Society Empires Tribes speaking Finno-Ugric languages are by now settled around the northeast of the Baltic, in modern Estonia and Finland Go to Finno-Ugric in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Migration Finland Society
54	The 16-year-old Nero is proclaimed emperor by the praetorian guards after the death of Claudius, supposedly poisoned by toadstools Go to Nero, Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus (c. 37–68 ad) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
c. 60	St Peter, believed to have come to Rome as leader of the Christian community, is subsequently considered the first pope Go to Peter, St in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Religion Christianity Papacy Rome Greece Italy St Paul arrives in Rome a prisoner, but then spends two years freely preaching Christianity Go to Paul, St (c.64) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Religion Christianity Rome Greece Italy Empires Boudicca launches a devastating attack on Roman soldiers and settlers, destroying their headquarters at Colchester Go to Boudicca (62 ad) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization Protest and rebellion Empires Britain
64	A great fire in Rome is popularly believed to have been started by Nero, whom legend also accuses of fiddling while the city burns Go to Nero (54–68 ce) in A Dictionary of the Bible (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Social and domestic Rome Greece Italy Society Empires Early Christian tradition states that both Peter and Paul meet death in Rome as martyrs, possibly as a result of the fire of AD 64 Go to Nero (54–68 ce) in A Dictionary of the Bible (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Religion Christianity Rome Greece Italy
66	Nero comes to Athens to give some of his officially celebrated performances at the Greek games Go to Nero, Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus (c. 37–68 ad) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Ancient Athens Performing arts Greece Italy Empires
69	A rebellion in Spain prompts such chaos that Rome has four emperors within a year, after the suicide of Nero in 68 Go to Roman civil wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Protest and rebellion Rome Italy Empires Vespasian, proclaimed emperor by his troops in Alexandria, is the survivor among this year's four emperors Go to Vespasian (ad 9–79) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Alexandria Africa North Africa Egypt Italy Empires
c. 75	The Acts of the Apostles are written, probably by Luke – the evangelist and companion of Paul on his final journey to Rome Go to Acts of the Apostles in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Religion Christianity Asia West Asia
77	Agricola, appointed Roman governor of Britain in AD 77, establishes Chester as a stronghold from which to control the Welsh tribes Go to Agricola in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization Wales Empires Britain
79	Titus becomes emperor on the death of his father, Vespasian, and begins a brief two-year reign of lavish public generosity Go to Titus (ad 39–81) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires A sudden eruption of Vesuvius buries the town of Pompeii in volcanic ash, in places twelve feet deep Go to Vesuvius in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Social and domestic Greece Italy Society Empires
80	The Colosseum is inaugurated by the emperor Titus with games lasting 100 days, in which some 9000 large animals are killed Go to Colosseum in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Sports and games Greece Italy Society Empires
81	Dying after a reign of only two years, Titus is succeeded on the imperial throne by his brother, Domitian Go to Domitian (ad 51–96) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
83	Agricola defeats the tribes of Scotland at an unidentified place called Mons Graupius, probably almost as far north as Aberdeen Go to Agricola in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization Scotland Empires Britain
98	Tacitus begins his career with two specialized but influential works of history, one on Britain and the other on Germany Go to Tacitus, Cornelius (c.ad 55–after 115) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Latin literature Roman empire Literature Greece Italy Empires Trajan, succeeding to the imperial throne in AD 98, is sufficiently confident to spend a year in Germany before returning to Rome Go to Trajan (c. 53–117 ad) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Germany Italy Empires
c. 100	A cult develops in Rome of the Egyptian goddess Isis, credited with restoring to life her husband, Osiris, after he has been hacked to pieces Go to Isis in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Roman empire Religion Rome Africa North Africa Egypt Italy Empires Sculptors in the Roman empire develop the most brutally realistic convention in the history of portraiture Go to verism in The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Roman empire Arts Sculpture Italian art Italy Empires The Celtic chieftains of Britain adapt willingly to Roman customs and comforts Go to Roman Britain (43–410 ad) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Roman empire Roman Britain Celts Social and domestic Society Empires Britain The network of Roman roads stretches eventually from England to Egypt Go to Roman roads in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Technology Engineering Africa North Africa Asia West Asia The first accounts of Scotland, written by the Romans, name the Caledonii as the most important tribe of the region Go to Caledonii in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Scotland Empires Britain
c. 105	A bridge is built over the river Tagus at Alcántara and stands today as a fine example of Roman technology Go to Alcántara (Extremadura/Spain) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Technology Engineering Spain Empires
106	After two campaigns by Trajan the rich region of Dacia (today's Romania) is brought under Rome's control Go to Dacia in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Politics Conquest and colonization
117	Hadrian, governing Syria when he is declared emperor, is confident enough to delay almost a year before returning to Rome Go to Hadrian in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria Italy Empires
c. 120	The Pantheon, roofed with the most spectacular dome of antiquity, is built in Rome by Hadrian Go to Pantheon in A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Architecture Italian architecture Rome Greece Italy Empires
122	The emperor Hadrian, visiting Britain, orders the construction of a great wall from coast to coast to keep out the Caledonian tribes Go to Hadrian's Wall in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization Empires Britain
c. 125	Suetonius, librarian to Trajan and personal secretary to Hadrian, is well placed to research his racy Lives of the Caesars Go to Suetonius (ad c.70–c.140) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Latin literature Roman empire Literature Greece Italy Empires
134	The Sant'Angelo bridge in Rome, still standing today, is built for the emperor Hadrian by means of a coffer dam Go to Hadrian in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Technology Engineering Italy Empires
138	The emperor Hadrian, with no children of his own, appoints a respected senator, Antoninus Pius, to succeed him Go to Antoninus Pius in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
c. 142	The emperor Antoninus Pius gives orders for the construction of a defensive earthwork, to the north of Hadrian's Wall Go to Antoninus Pius in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Conquest and colonization Empires Britain
c. 150	London develops as a prosperous trading centre, at the hub of the network of Roman roads in Britain Go to London in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Roman Britain Commerce and industry Society Empires Britain
161	Marcus Aurelius, for long the designated heir, becomes emperor on the death of Antoninus Pius Go to Aurelius, Marcus in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
c. 165	The bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, on the Capitol in Rome, begins a long European tradition of public sculpture Go to Marcus Aurelius in The Oxford Dictionary of Art (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Arts Sculpture Italian art Italy Empires
c. 170	Marcus Aurelius is rare among emperors in writing twelve books of philosophical Meditations Go to Aurelius, Marcus in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Latin literature Roman empire Literature Philosophy Italy Empires
177	On the order of Marcus Aurelius, Christians in Lyons are tortured to death - an instance of persecution unusual at this time Go to Lyons, Martyrs of (d. 177) in The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (5 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Roman empire Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity France Empires
c. 244	Plotinus, moving from Alexandria to Rome, teaches the influential philosophy later known as Neo-Platonism Go to Plotinus (205–270) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Latin literature Literature Philosophy Alexandria Africa North Africa Egypt Italy
c. 250	The Goths split into two major groups, the Visigoths northwest of the Black Sea and the Ostrogoths further east Go to Goths in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Migration Asia West Asia Society The Christians of Rome use the catacombs as tomb chambers, and decorate the walls with murals on New Testament themes Go to catacombs in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Arts Painting Italian painting Religion Christianity Italian art Rome Greece Italy The Picts win a dominant position among tribes in the northern regions of Britain, or Scotland Go to Picts in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Migration Scotland British Isles Society Britain
274	The emperor Aurelian, grateful for the apparent assistance of a Syrian sun god, establishes the cult of the Unconquered Sun - whose birthday is December 25 Go to Aurelian (c.215–75) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Roman empire Religion Asia West Asia Greece Italy Empires
284	Diocletian, commanding an army near the Bosphorus in Thracia, is proclaimed emperor by his troops Go to Diocletian (284–305) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
c. 300	Horses strong enough to carry men wearing armour are put to good use by northern barbarians, and by Romans in border regions such as Dacia Go to horses in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century 4th century War The Jews of the Diaspora have by now spread through much of the Roman empire, where they are treated with tolerance Go to Dispersion, Diaspora in The Oxford Guide to People and Places of the Bible (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century 4th century Roman empire Religion Judaism Migration Africa North Africa Asia West Asia Society Empires
303	The emperor Diocletian initiates a sustained persecution of Christians in the Roman empire Go to Diocletian (284–305) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity Africa North Africa Asia West Asia Empires
305	Diocletian resigns from his position as Augustus because of ill health, and retires to Dalmatia Go to Diocletian (284–305) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Politics Dynasties and royalty
306	Constantine's father, recently appointed Augustus in the west, dies at York and the young man is proclaimed Augustus in his place by the legions in Britain Go to Constantine (c. 274–337) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Roman Britain Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires Britain
312	Constantine, preparing for battle against a rival at the Milvian Bridge, orders his men to wear a Christian symbol, the Chi-Rho, on their shields Go to Christogram in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Greece Italy Empires After winning the battle at Milvian Bridge, Constantine marches into Rome and is formally acknowledged by the Senate as Augustus of the west Go to Milvian Bridge in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Rome Greece Italy Empires
313	Constantine meets his co-emperor Licinius in Milan, and persuades him to follow a policy of encouraging the Christians Go to Licinius in Who's Who in the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Italy Empires
314	Warming to his new Christian role, Constantine summons more than 300 bishops to Arles to discuss the controversial issue of Donatus Go to Donatism in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity France Empires
c. 315	Constantine founds several churches in Rome, among them the first St Peter's Go to St Peter's, Rome in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Architecture Italian architecture Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Greece Italy Empires
c. 320	Constantine's new churches in Rome introduce an important element in church architecture, the transept Go to transept in The Oxford Companion to Architecture (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Architecture Italian architecture Rome Italy Empires Roman mosaic is at its most lavish in the floors of Piazza Armerina, in central Sicily Go to Piazza Armerina in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Arts Italian art Sicily Italy Empires
325	Constantine executes Licinius in Thessalonica on a charge of attempted rebellion, a year after defeating him in battle Go to Licinius (308–324) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Politics Greece Italy Empires
330	Constantine's new Christian city on the site of Byzantium is inaugurated, as Constantinople Go to Constantinople in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Turkey Empires
c. 350	Greece begins to find a new and influential role in a Christian context, through the Byzantine empire Go to Constantinople in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Byzantine empire Politics Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Greece Empires
c. 360	The Christian missionary Ulfilas devises an alphabet for the language of the Goths, so that he can translate the Bible into Gothic Go to Ulfilas in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) St Martin founds the first monastery in western Europe, at Ligugé near Poitiers Go to Martin, St (d. 397) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Religion Christianity France The first church of Santa Sophia in Constantinople, begun by Constantine himself, is completed Go to Sancta Sophia in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Byzantine empire Architecture Turkey Empires
361	Julian, the new emperor in Constantinople, plans to reinstate the pagan cult of the ancient Roman empire Go to Julian the Apostate (332–63) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Turkey Empires
c. 370	The Huns, moving from the steppes north of the Black Sea, defeat the Ostrogoths and drive the Visigoths westwards - starting a chain reaction Go to Huns in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Migration Society
378	The Visigoths inflict a devastating defeat on a Roman army at Adrianople, and win for themselves the status of Roman federates Go to Adrianople, battle of (378) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Migration Battles Turkey Society
379	Theodosius becomes the Roman emperor and revives Constantine's close link between church and state Go to Theodosius I in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Turkey Empires
c. 380	Roman legions begin to be withdrawn from Britain, leaving the Celtic population increasingly vulnerable Go to Stilicho in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Roman Britain Celts Politics Conquest and colonization Society Empires Britain
390	St Ambrose asserts the authority of the church, refusing communion to the emperor Theodosius in Milan until he does penance for a massacre Go to Ambrose, St (c.339–97) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Italy Empires The church of Santa Pudenziana in Rome begins the great tradition of Christian mosaics Go to mosaics in A Dictionary of the Bible (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Arts Italian art Rome Italy
393	The ancient games at Olympia, with an unbroken tradition of more than 1000 years, are brought to an abrupt end by the emperor Theodosius Go to Olympian Games in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Sports and games Greece Society
c. 400	Niall of the Nine Hostages is the first man to be called king of Ireland, though his direct control does not extend beyond Ulster Go to Niall of the Nine Hostages (c.445–53) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century 5th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Ireland Britain
406	The Vandals cross the Rhine into Gaul and move into Spain, from which the Visigoths soon push them on into Africa Go to Vandals in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Politics Conquest and colonization Migration France Spain Society Empires
407	The Roman city of Nîmes is sacked by the Vandals, in an early indication of the gradual loss of Gaul to the Germanic tribes Go to Vandals in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration War France Society Empires
410	Alaric and the Visigoths enter Rome and plunder the city - the first foreign intruders for eight centuries Go to Visigoths (west *Goths) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration War Rome Italy Society Empires
413	The Burgundians cross the Rhine and settle round Worms, before moving south to the Savoy region Go to Burgundians in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration France Society Empires
418	The Visigoths, after twenty years of destructive wandering, settle in southwest France as Roman federates Go to Visigoths (west *Goths) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration France Society Empires
431	Halted by a Roman army in their push southwards, the Franks settle in the Roman province of Belgica, around Tournai Go to Tournai in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration Belgium Netherlands Society Empires
445	Attila murders his brother and becomes the sole ruler of the Huns, who are now pressing through Dacia and across the Danube Go to Attila (d. 453) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Migration Society
c. 450	Angles, Saxons and other Germanic groups invade southern England and steadily push the Celts westwards Go to Saxons in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Celts Politics Conquest and colonization Migration British Isles Society Britain St Patrick creates a strong tradition of Celtic Christianity in Ireland, from his base in Armagh Go to Patrick, St in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Celts Religion Christianity British Isles Ireland Society Britain
451	Attila and the Huns invade Gaul but are defeated, somewhere near Troyes, by a Roman army supported by Visigoths and Burgundians Go to Attila (d. 453) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration Battles France Society Empires
452	Attila invades and ravages northern Italy, but turns back before reaching Rome - possibly influenced by the diplomacy of Leo I Go to Leo I the Great in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration War Rome Italy Society Empires
455	Gaiseric and the Vandals enter Rome and sack the city, but their violence is perhaps restrained by Leo I Go to Gaiseric (428) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration War Rome Italy Society Empires
c. 460	The mausoleum of Galla Placidia begins Ravenna's great tradition of Christian mosaic Go to mosaics in A Dictionary of the Bible (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Arts Italian art Italy
476	The tribal leader and mercenary Odoacer becomes king of Italy - an event often taken as defining the end of the Roman empire in the west Go to Odoacer (433–93) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy Empires
c. 481	The 15-year-old Clovis inherits the Merovingian crown and becomes leader of the Franks - with his first capital at Tournai Go to Clovis1 (465–511) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Politics Dynasties and royalty France
487	Theodoric the Ostrogoth, threatening Constantinople, is cunningly diverted by the emperor into invading Italy Go to Theodoric the Great in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty War Asia West Asia Turkey Italy Empires
493	Theodoric wins Ravenna from Odoacer - by inviting Odoacer to a banquet and murdering him during the meal Go to Theodoric the Great in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty War Italy Empires
c. 500	Monks in Ireland live in stone beehive cells on rocky islands, to achieve maximum discomfort Go to Beehive huts in Brewer's Dictionary of Irish Phrase & Fable (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century 6th century Religion Christianity Monasticism British Isles Ireland Britain Small ivory panels, with Gospel scenes carved in relief, provide a delicate beginning to the story of Christian sculpture Go to iconography, Christian in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century 6th century Arts Sculpture Religion Christianity Asia West Asia A phallic figure, the Cerne Giant, is cut on a Dorset hillside at Cerne Abbas Go to hill figures in A Dictionary of English Folklore (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century 6th century Sculpture Religion British Isles Britain According to Bede, the first widely accepted Anglo-Saxon ruler in southern Britain is Aelli, founder of the West Sussex kingdom Go to Ælle (d. c.514) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century 6th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Britain Clovis and some 3000 of his soldiers are baptized in a massive ceremony at Reims Go to Clovis (c. 466–511) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century 6th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity France
518	The Slavs cross the Danube and press southwards into the Roman provinces of Moesia and Thracia Go to Slavs in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Migration Society
525	Dionysius Exiguus, commissioned by the pope to improve chronology, makes an error of at least four years in his selected event for AD 1 Go to Dionysius Exiguus (500) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Literature Religion Christianity Papacy Italy St Benedict gathers fellow hermits at Subiaco into a series of small monasteries Go to Benedict, St (c.480–c.550) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Italy The law is changed to allow Justinian, of senatorial rank, to marry Theodora — whom courtesy describes as an actress Go to Theodora (c. 500–48) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Asia West Asia Turkey Empires Boethius, in prison in Pavia and awaiting execution, writes the Consolation of Philosophy Go to Boethius (c. 480–524) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Latin literature Literature Philosophy Italy
526	By the end of his long reign Theodoric amply justifies his title 'the Great' and his place in legend as Dietrich von Bern Go to Dietrich of Bern in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Italy
527	Justinian becomes emperor in Constantinople, beginning a reign which will restore the empire to much of its former glory Go to Justinian (483–565) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Asia West Asia Turkey Empires
529	Justinian closes down the schools of Athens, famous for their tradition of pagan philosophy Go to pericope in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Greek literature Byzantine empire Ancient Athens Literature Philosophy Persecution and repression Greece Empires
c. 530	St Finnian founds the first of Ireland's great Celtic monasteries, at Clonard Go to Clonard in A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Celts Religion Christianity British Isles Ireland Society Britain St Benedict founds a monastery at Monte Cassino and writes a Rule for the monks which becomes the basis of the Benedictine order Go to Benedict, Rule of St in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Italy
532	Theodora shows her mettle, as empress, in her response to the anarchy and terror unleashed in Constantinople by the Nika revolt Go to Nika Revolt in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Politics Protest and rebellion Turkey Empires
534	The codification of Roman law, ordered by Justinian, is completed Go to Roman law in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Turkey
535	Belisarius lands in Sicily at the start of a five-year campaign to recover Ravenna for the Byzantine emperor Go to Ravenna in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization Sicily Italy Empires
537	The great domed church of Santa Sophia, rebuilt on the orders of Justinian, is completed after only five years of construction Go to Sancta Sophia in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Architecture Turkey Empires The vast dome of Santa Sophia in Constantinople is supported on a square of four arches, making the most sophisticated use so far of the pendentive Go to pendentive in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Architecture Turkey
547	Justinian and Theodora, each with a retinue of attendants, face each other in mosaic from the walls of San Vitale in Ravenna Go to mosaic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Arts Italian art Italy Empires
c. 550	The Slavs arrive in the Balkans and settle in all parts of the region except Albania Go to Slavs in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Migration Society Most of Spain is by now in the hands of the Visigoths, though for a while the Byzantines win back territories in the south Go to Visigoths (west *Goths) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization Migration Spain Society Empires If there is any historical basis for the legendary King Arthur, it is as a Celtic chieftain resisting the Anglo-Saxons in the sixth century Go to Aberdeen in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Celts Migration British Isles Society Britain
552	The territories won by Clovis become divided into the two Frankish kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria Go to Clovis1 (465–511) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Politics
563	St Columba establishes a monastery on the island of Iona, from which Celtic Christianity is carried to Scotland and northern England Go to Columba, St (d. 597) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Celts Religion Christianity Scotland British Isles Society Britain
568	The Lombards invade northern Italy, and within four years occupy it as far south as the Po Go to Lombards in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Migration Italy Society
569	Fugitives from the Lombard invasion of northern Italy take refuge on islands in the Venetian lagoon - and become the founders of Venice Go to Venice in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Migration Venice Italy Society
c. 580	St David founds monasteries in Wales and makes his base at Mynyw, a place now known after him as St David's Go to David, St (d. c.601) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Religion Christianity Wales British Isles Britain
c. 584	Byzantine Italy is brought under a new administration, or exarchate, based in Ravenna Go to Exarchate in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Politics Italy Empires
589	The word filioque ('and from the Son') becomes a major bone of contention between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches Go to Filioque in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Asia West Asia
591	Gregory, bishop of Tours, brings his 'History of the Franks' up to this year Go to Gregory of Tours (c. 540–94) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Literature France
592	Pope Gregory I negotiates with the Lombards who are threatening Rome Go to Gregory I, St (c.540–604) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Papacy Migration Italy Society
597	Augustine, arriving with a party of monks from Rome, reaches Canterbury and is well received by the pagan king of Kent Go to Augustine, St (d. c.604) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Religion Christianity Monasticism British Isles Britain
c. 600	Ritual intoning of the psalms, derived from Jewish synagogues, is formalized in Christian worship as Gregorian chant Go to plainsong in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music (5 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century 7th century Performing arts Music Religion Christianity Judaism Asia West Asia The distinction between capital and lower-case emerges in the scriptoria of the Irish monasteries See this event in other timelines: 6th century 7th century British Isles Ireland Britain The Scots, a tribal group of northern Ireland, extend their kingdom across the sea into Scotland Go to Scot in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century 7th century Migration Scotland British Isles Ireland Society Britain
c. 610	St Columban founds a monastery at Bobbio, the furthest outpost of Celtic Christianity Go to Bobbio in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Celts Religion Christianity Italy Society
c. 620	The Irish monk St Aidan moves from Iona to establish a monastery on Lindisfarne Go to Lindisfarne in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Scotland British Isles Ireland Britain
c. 625	The treasure of an Anglo-Saxon king (possibly Raedwald, who dies at this time) is buried in a 90-foot-long ship at Sutton Hoo Go to Raedwald in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century British Isles Britain
c. 650	In the Frankish kingdoms the 'mayors of the palace' steadily become more powerful than their nominal masters, the Merovingian kings Go to Mayor of the Palace in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Politics France The Book of Durrow, one of the earliest of the great Celtic manuscripts, is written and illuminated in Ireland Go to Durrow, Book of in The Oxford Companion to Irish History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Celts Arts Painting British painting Religion Christianity British Isles Ireland Society Britain The Vikings develop the fast and narrow longships with which they raid across the North Sea Go to longship noun in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Britain
664	The king of Northumbria summons a synod at Whitby to hear the arguments of Roman and Celtic Christians, then opts for Rome Go to synod in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Celts Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity British Isles Society Britain
674	A Muslim fleet attacking Constantinople is deterred by the first known use of the Byzantine secret recipe for 'Greek fire' Go to Greek fire in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Byzantine empire Weapons Muslim empires Asia West Asia Turkey Empires
c. 687	With a victory at Tertry, Pepin II wins effective control over all three Frankish kingdoms Go to Tertry, Battle of in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Politics Dynasties and royalty France Germany
695	Willibrord, recently arrived from England to convert the Frisians, is consecrated archbishop of a new see in Utrecht Go to Willibrord, St (658–739) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Religion Christianity Netherlands
c. 698	The Lindisfarne Gospels are written and illuminated by Celtic monks on the Scottish island of Lindisfarne Go to Lindisfarne Gospels in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Celts Arts Painting British painting Religion Christianity Monasticism Scotland British Isles Society Britain
c. 700	Many Anglo-Saxon kingdoms have by now amalgamated, until there are just the seven of the Heptarchy Go to heptarchy in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century 8th century Politics British Isles Britain
711	Muslim Arabs cross from north Africa into Spain and drive the Visigoths from Toledo Go to Toledo in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam Muslim empires Africa North Africa Spain Empires
714	The death of the Frankish 'mayor of the palace' Pepin II is followed by civil war between members of his family Go to Merovingians in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France
718	Retreating from the Arab onslaught, the Visigoths establish a kingdom of last resort in the extreme north of Spain, in Asturias Go to Asturias (Philippines, Spain) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Conquest and colonization Migration Muslim empires Spain Society Empires
724	The civil war among the Franks ends with complete victory for Charles Martel, an illegitimate grandson of Pepin II Go to Charles Martel (c. 688–741) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France
c. 725	The Frankish ruler Charles Martel, granting tracts of land to his nobles, lays the foundation for European feudalism Go to feudalism in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics France
726	The emperor Leo III launches the iconoclastic controversy, sending soldiers to smash the great image of Christ over the gateway to his palace Go to Iconoclastic controversy in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Byzantine empire Religion Christianity Turkey Empires The Venetians for the first time elect their own doge, acting independently of the Byzantine governor in Ravenna Go to doge in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Byzantine empire Politics Democracy and dissent Venice Italy Empires
731	The Venerable Bede, in his monastery at Jarrow, completes his history of the English church and people Go to Bede (673–735) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Literature English literature Literature in English British Isles Britain
732	The Muslim advance into France is halted when Charles Martel defeats the Arabs between Poitiers and Tours Go to Poitiers in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Islam Battles Muslim empires France Empires
741	Charles Martel dies and leaves the Frankish kingdoms to his two sons, Carloman and Pepin III Go to Pepin III (714–68) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Dynasties and royalty France
747	The elder son of Charles Martel retires to a monastery, leaving Pepin III in control of the entire Frankish empire Go to Pepin in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Dynasties and royalty France
c. 750	With papal support Pepin III is elected king of the Franks, beginning the Carolingian dynasty (named from his father, Charles Martel) Go to Carolingian empire in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Papacy France
753	Pope Stephen II anoints Pepin III and his two sons (one of them Charlemagne) in the abbey church of St Denis Go to St-Denis in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Holy Roman empire Politics Religion Christianity Papacy France Empires
756	Abd-ar-Rahman, escaping from the massacre of his family in Syria, establishes a new Umayyad dynasty at Cordoba Go to Cordoba in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Islam Muslim empires Spain Empires Pepin III, after recovering Byzantine territories in Italy from the Lombards, hands control of the region to the pope in Rome Go to Patrimony of St Peter in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization Papacy Italy Empires
768	On the death of Pepin III, the empire of the Franks is divided between his two sons - Charlemagne and his younger brother, Carloman Go to Charlemagne (c.742–814) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Dynasties and royalty France
771	On the death of his brother, Charlemagne inherits the entire kingdom of the Franks Go to Charlemagne in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Holy Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty France Germany Empires
774	After two campaigns in Lombardy, Charlemagne establishes himself as king of the Lombards in northern Italy Go to Lombardy (Canada, Italy) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Conquest and colonization Italy
778	An attack on Charlemagne's army, traditionally at the pass of Roncesvalles in the Pyrenees, is later the basis for the Chanson de Roland Go to Chanson de Roland in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Literature Poetry Spain
c. 780	The Anglo-Saxons have a name for the Celts west of Offa's dyke - wealas or Welsh, meaning foreigners Go to Offa's Dyke, England in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Celts Migration Wales British Isles Society Britain
793	The monks of Lindisfarne become the first known overseas victims of a Viking raid Go to Vikings in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Britain
796	Alcuin leaves the palace school at Aachen to become abbot of the monastery of Tours Go to Saint-Martin at Tours in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Religion Christianity France Germany
c. 800	The style of architecture of early medieval Europe is Romanesque, in the sense of deriving from Roman examples Go to Romanesque in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century 9th century Architecture The script known as Carolingian minuscule (basis of the modern roman typeface) is developed by Alcuin and his scribes at the monastery of Tours Go to Carolingian (Caroline) minuscule in The Oxford Companion to the Book (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century 9th century Arts Decorative arts French art France Beowulf, the first great work of Germanic literature, mingles the legends of Scandinavia with the experience in England of Angles and Saxons Go to Beowulf in A Dictionary of English Folklore (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century 9th century Literature English literature Literature in English British Isles Germany Britain The Jews prosper in the Muslim and Carolingian empires, forming strong communities in Spain and in Germany Go to Jews in The Oxford Companion to Chaucer (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century 9th century Religion Judaism Social and domestic Germany Spain Society In St Peter's in Rome, on Christmas Day, pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne emperor - supposedly to Charlemagne's surprise Go to Leo III, St (d. 816) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century 9th century Holy Roman empire Politics Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Papacy Italy Empires
811	Hemming, a Danish king, makes a treaty with the Franks establishing the river Eider as the southern border of Denmark Go to Denmark in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Denmark
813	Charlemagne has his only surviving legitimate son, Louis the Pious, crowned as his co-emperor Go to Louis I (778–840) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Dynasties and royalty
814	Charlemagne dies and his son Louis the Pious inherits the whole, now greatly extended, Frankish empire Go to Louis I (778–840) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Dynasties and royalty
c. 816	Work begins in Rheims on the Utrecht Psalter, an outstanding example of the Carolingian illuminated manuscript Go to Utrecht Psalter in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Arts Decorative arts French art France
c. 820	The Venetians move their administration from the island of Torcello to the Rialto Go to Rialto in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Venice Italy
c. 825	The discovery of the supposed remains of the apostle St James makes Santiago de Compostela a new centre of European pilgrimage Go to Santiago de Compostela in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Religion Christianity Spain Viking tribes known as the Rus are established as traders in the region of Novgorod Go to Novgorod, Russia in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Commerce and industry Migration Russia Society
827	The Arabs get a foothold in Sicily and begin a slow process, not complete till AD 965, of squeezing the Byzantines out of the island Go to Sicily in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam Sicily Italy Empires
828	The Venetians, acquiring from Alexandria some bones believed to be those of St Mark, build St Mark's to house the valuable relic Go to Mark, St in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Religion Christianity Alexandria Venice Africa North Africa Egypt Italy
838	Vikings from Norway capture Dublin and establish a Norse kingdom in Ireland Go to Dublin in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Ireland Norway Britain
843	The iconoclastic controversy ends when Theodora, widow of the emperor Theophilus, officially sanctions the veneration of icons Go to icon in A Dictionary of the Bible (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Byzantine empire Religion Christianity Asia West Asia Empires The division of western Europe into three kingdoms for the sons of Louis the Pious is agreed at Verdun, with lasting consequences Go to Verdun, Treaty of (843) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Kenneth king of the Scots is accepted also as king of the Picts, providing the traditional founding event of the kingdom of Scotland Go to Picts in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles Britain The central Frankish kingdom, Francia Media, becomes one of the great fault lines of European history Go to Lorraine (Australia, Canada, France, USA) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics France Germany
c. 850	Vikings are by now securely established in the Orkneys, Shetlands and Hebrides, and in much of the Scottish mainland down to Loch Ness Go to Shetland in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Conquest and colonization Scotland British Isles Britain As a gesture of unity, Kenneth MacAlpin brings to Scone (a Pictish royal site) a sacred coronation stone associated with the Scots Go to Kenneth I MacAlpin (d. 858) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Scotland British Isles Britain Communal gatherings, the thing and the larger althing, are the distant origins of Scandinavian parliaments Go to parliament in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Democracy and dissent The three-field system, introduced by the Franks, increases agricultural yield by 33%. Go to field systems in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Social and domestic France Society
865	The Bulgarian king Boris I is baptized in the Greek Orthodox faith, bringing his people within the Byzantine fold Go to Orthodox Church in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Empires
866	A great army of Danes captures York - the first step in the establishment of Danelaw in eastern England Go to Danby, Thomas Osborne, 1st Earl of (1632–1712) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Denmark Britain
871	The young Alfred leads the English in their first significant victory over the Danes, at Ashdown Go to Ashdown, battle of (871) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Denmark Britain
874	Vikings arrive in Iceland and form a settlement on the site of modern Reykjavik Go to Reykjavík (Iceland) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Conquest and colonization
878	Rhodri Mawr, or Rhodri the Great, is widely accepted as king of almost the whole of Wales Go to Rhodri Mawr (‘the Great’) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Wales British Isles Britain
882	Oleg, leader of the Rus, seizes the town of Kiev and makes his headquarters there Go to Kiev Rus in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Russia
886	Alfred captures London from the Danes, pressing them back into the region of Danelaw where their rule is, for the moment, tolerated Go to Alfred (849–99) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Denmark Britain
c. 895	The Magyars, under the leadership of Arpad, establish themselves in Hungary Go to Magyars in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Conquest and colonization Migration Hungary Society
c. 900	With the end of iconoclasm, the screen between the nave and the altar sanctuary becomes covered in icons in Orthodox churches Go to iconostatis in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century 10th century Byzantine empire Architecture Asia West Asia Empires
909	Monastic reform, begun at Cluny, is so successful that more than 1000 Benedictine houses eventually follow the Cluniac example Go to Cluny, Cluniacs in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Religion Christianity Monasticism France
911	The Vikings settle in France, as Normans, when Rollo the Ganger is granted feudal rights over the region round Rouen Go to Rollo (c.932) in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Migration France Society
920	After years of raiding up the Shannon, the Vikings capture Limerick Go to Limerick city in The Oxford Companion to Irish History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Ireland Britain
930	An althing of chieftains establishes the commonwealth of Iceland, which will survive for more than three centuries Go to commonwealth in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Democracy and dissent
c. 950	Leon forms a loose alliance with its southern neighbour, Castile, to become the most powerful unit in northern Spain Go to Amenhotep in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Spain Medieval Europe's first institute of higher education is established, with the founding of the medical school at Salerno Go to Italy in The Oxford Companion to Medicine (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Science Medicine Italy So many Slavs are captured and sold, in the movement eastwards of the Germans, that their name becomes the European word for a slave Go to slave in The Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Terrorism and assassination The material of the Eddas, taking shape in Iceland, derives from earlier sources in Norway, Britain and Burgundy Go to Edda in The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Literature English literature Literature in English Poetry British Isles France Norway Britain The Byzantine empire enjoys a revival, bringing the Slavs within the Greek Orthodox fold and winning victories against the Muslims Go to Slavs in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Byzantine empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Empires
c. 960	Harald Bluetooth is baptized a Christian and unites the whole of Denmark as a single kingdom. Go to Gwynedd in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Denmark
962	The imperial coronation of Otto I by Pope John XII in St Peter's puts in place the formal role of a Holy Roman emperor Go to Otto I (912–73) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Holy Roman empire Politics Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Papacy Italy Empires
963	The Poles are first recorded as a tribal group when a German knight comes into contact with them in the region round Gniezno Go to Gniezno (Poland) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Migration Poland Society
965	Mieszko, pagan chieftain of the Poles, marries a Christian Czech princess and brings all his people into the Roman Catholic fold Go to Mieszko I (c.935–992) in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Poland
975	The Hungarian king Gezá and his family are baptized as Roman Catholics, beginning a long link between Hungary and Rome Go to Árpád dynasty in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Hungary
976	Brian Boru becomes king of Munster and leader of the Irish campaign against the Vikings Go to Brian Boru (d. 1014) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Ireland Britain
987	Hugh Capet, a Frankish noble elected king of west Francia, establishes the royal dynasty of France. Go to Hugh Capet , king of France (941–96) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Dynasties and royalty France Hugh Capet is the first in an unbroken line of twelve generations on the throne of France Go to Hugh Capet , king of France (941–96) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Dynasties and royalty France Vladimir, the prince of Kiev, decides that Greek Orthodoxy is the most suitable religion for the Russian people Go to Orthodox Church in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Russia
991	New waves of Danes, raiding into the English territory of Danelaw, are bought off by Ethelred with Danegeld Go to Danegeld in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics British Isles Denmark Britain
c. 1000	Iceland's parliament, the althing, passes a resolution that everyone on the island is to be baptized Go to resolution in A Dictionary of Law (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century 11th century Politics Democracy and dissent Religion Christianity The first illustrated manual of surgery is written by Abul Kasim, an Arab physician in Cordoba Go to Cordoba in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century 11th century Science Medicine Spain The feudal knight of northern Europe, wearing armour of chain mail on a sturdy horse, becomes the fighting machine of the Middle Ages Go to chain mail in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century 11th century War
1001	Japanese author Murasaki Shibubi produces, in The Tale of Genji, a book which can be considered the world's first novel Go to Murasaki, Shikibu (978–1014) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Literature Fiction Asia East Asia Japan Pope Sylvester II, according to tradition, sends a sacred crown for the coronation of Hungary's first king, St Stephen Go to Sylvester II (c.940–1003) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Papacy Hungary
1014	Brian Boru, aged 73, achieves a major victory over the Vikings at Clontarf but is killed in his tent after the battle Go to Clontarf, battle of (1014) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles British Isles Ireland Britain
1017	Canute, joint king of Denmark, is accepted also as king of England after subduing the country and marrying Ethelred's widow Go to Canute (1035) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Denmark Britain
c. 1030	Yaroslav builds up his Russian kingdom and turns his capital, Kiev, into a spectacular Christian city Go to Kiev (Ukraine) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Russia Yaroslav commissions Russkaya Pravda ('Russian truth'), a code of Russia's laws Go to Russkaya Pravda in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Russia
1040	In a battle near Elgin Macbeth kills his cousin Duncan, a rival claimant to the Scottish throne Go to Macbeth (d. 1057) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century War Battles Scotland British Isles Britain
1042	Edward the Confessor, the rightful heir in the Anglo-Saxon royal line, becomes king of England Go to Frederick II (1194–1250) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Britain
c. 1050	The heavier and more dense style of calligraphy, known as 'black letter', becomes the fashion in manuscripts written in northern Europe Go to black letter in The Oxford Companion to the Book (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century
1054	A Russian chronicle makes the first mention of the marauding Polovtsy, who persistently raid Russian cities from the steppes Go to steppe in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century War Russia
1057	Duncan's son, Malcolm, kills Macbeth in battle at Lumphanan - and in the following year is himself crowned at Scone Go to Malcolm III (d. 1093) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Scotland British Isles Britain
1066	On his death bed in Westminster, Edward the Confessor designates Harold - foremost among England's barons - as his successor Go to Frederick II (1194–1250) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Edward the Confessor is buried in his new abbey church at Westminster, consecrated only the previous week Go to Westminster Abbey in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain On the day of Edward's burial, Harold is crowned king - almost certainly in the same abbey church at Westminster Go to Harold II (c. 1022–66) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Halley's comet, appearing in the Normans' annus mirabilis, is later depicted in the Bayeux tapestry Go to Halley's Comet (1P/Halley) in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Science Astronomy and space British Isles France Britain Harold defeats at Stamford Bridge the joint army of his brother Tostig and of the Norwegian king, Harald Hardraade Go to Stamford Bridge, battle of (1066) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century War Battles British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Norway Rulers and politicians Britain The Normans, as seen in the Bayeux tapestry, invade England in Viking longships with fortified platforms for archers Go to Bayeux Tapestry in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 France Rulers and politicians Britain Harold, hurrying south to confront the Normans after his victory at Stamford Bridge, is defeated and killed at Hastings Go to Harold II (c. 1022–66) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain William the Conqueror is crowned on Christmas Day at Westminster - giving the new abbey church two coronations and a royal funeral in its first year Go to William I (1028–87) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1075	Pope Gregory VII decrees that only the church may make ecclesiastical appointments, thus initiating the investiture controversy between pope and emperor Go to Investiture Controversy in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Holy Roman empire Politics Religion Christianity Papacy Italy Empires
1077	The emperor Henry IV stands as a penitent outside the pope's castle at Canossa, so as to be released from excommunication. Go to penitent in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Holy Roman empire Politics Papacy Italy Empires
1078	Anselm includes in his Proslogion his famous 'ontological proof' of the existence of God Go to ontological argument in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Literature Literature in English Philosophy Religion Christianity France
c. 1080	Work begins on the story of the Norman conquest, narrated in embroidery in the Bayeux tapestry Go to Bayeux Tapestry in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Arts Decorative arts British art British Isles French art France Britain Norman earls are given territories on the marches of Wales, with the specific task of raiding their neighbours Go to Normans in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Wales British Isles Britain
1082	Venice acquires valuable trading privileges from Constantinople, her merchants being excused all dues and customs in the Byzantine empire Go to Istanbul in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire 11th century Commerce and industry Venice Asia West Asia Turkey Italy Society Empires
1084	St Bruno and six companions retire to Chartreuse, in the French Alps, and establish the Carthusian order Go to Carthusian Order in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Religion Christianity Monasticism France
1085	Toledo is captured from the Muslims by Alfonso VI of Castile, who continues the city's traditions of religious tolerance Go to Alfonso VI of Castile (1065–1109) in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity Islam Spain
1087	On the death of his father, William the Conqueror, William II becomes king of England Go to William II (c. 1056–1100) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain The Domesday Book provides the Normans with an inventory of England Go to Domesday Book in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Medicine Commerce and industry British Isles Society Britain
1091	Roger I, the first Norman count of Sicily, completes the conquest of the island from the Muslims Go to Roger I in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Sicily Italy
1093	Work begins on a new cathedral in Durham, which will become an outstanding example of Norman (or Romanesque) architecture Go to Durham in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century Architecture British architecture British Isles Britain
1094	Rodrigo Diaz, known as El Cid, drives out the Muslims and wins Valencia Go to El Cid (Campeador) (c. 1040–99) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Spain
c. 1098	Benedictine monks, wishing to return to the early ideals of the order, form a community at Cîteaux which becomes the Cistercian order Go to Cistercian Order in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Religion Christianity Monasticism France
c. 1100	Many of the towns of northern Italy acquire virtual independence as self-governing communes Go to Communes in The Oxford Companion to Italian Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century 12th century Politics Democracy and dissent Italy On the death of his brother, William II, Henry I becomes king of England Go to Henry I (b. 1068) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 11th century 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1102	The chansons de geste, performed by professional minstrels in castles and manors, celebrate the exploits of Charlemagne and his paladins Go to chansons de geste in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Literature French literature Poetry France
c. 1115	Peter Abelard teaches philosophy at Notre Dame until an affair with one of his pupils, Héloïse, brings his career to a dramatic end Go to Abelard, Peter (1079–1142) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century France St Bernard establishes a new monastery at Clairvaux, from which he presides over the rapid expansion of the Cistercian order Go to Bernard, St (1090–1153) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Religion Christianity Monasticism France
c. 1120	The troubadours of Provence develop a new form of love poetry in French, introducing courtly love Go to courtly love in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Literature French literature Poetry France The White Ship strikes a rock off the Cherbourg peninsula drowning William the Aetheling, heir to the English throne Go to White Ship in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1130	A popular French poem, the Chanson de Roland, turns a minor disaster in one of Charlemagne's campaigns into a tale of epic heroism Go to Roland in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Literature French literature Poetry France The full flowering of the Romanesque style is seen in the nave of the abbey church at Vézelay, in France Go to Romanesque in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Architecture French architecture France
1132	Work begins on the exquisite palace chapel in Palermo, built for the Norman kings of Sicily Go to Palermo in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Architecture Italian architecture Sicily Italy
1135	On the death of Henry I, his nephew Stephen moves quickly to keep Henry's daughter Matilda off the English throne Go to Stephen , king of England (c.1097–1154) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1136	Walter FitzAlan takes a post as steward with the Scottish king, thus establishing the Stewart family and later dynasty Go to Stuart, house of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1139	Pope Innocent III and the second Lateran council outlaw the crossbow as a weapon causing unacceptable devastation Go to Lateran Councils in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Papacy Weapons Italy Victory over the Muslims at Ourique is seen as the moment of Portugal's independence from the kingdom of Leon Go to León in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Portugal
1144	The new abbey church of St Denis is consecrated near Paris, introducing the style of architecture later known as Gothic Go to Gothic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Architecture French architecture Gothic France The fall of Edessa prompts the pope, Eugenius III, to call for a second crusade to defend the Latin kingdom Go to Eugenius III (d. 1153) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Religion Christianity Papacy War Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Italy Wars and Revolutions
c. 1145	A new form of pious devotion is seen in Chartres, with people painfully dragging wagons of stone to enlarge the cathedral Go to Chartres in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Religion Christianity France
1147	Alfonso I takes Lisbon from the Muslims, with the unexpected help of some passing English crusaders Go to Lisbon in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Portugal Wars and Revolutions Gilbert of Hastings, an English priest, becomes bishop of the recovered see of Lisbon - the first of many such links between England and Portugal Go to Lisbon in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Religion Christianity Portugal The second crusade is led east by two kings, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany Go to Louis VII (c.1120–80) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity France Germany Wars and Revolutions Seville falls to the Almohads, from north Africa, who make it their Spanish capital Go to Almohads (1130–1269) in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Spain
c. 1150	In feudal France and Germany Charlemagne is by now venerated as a saint Go to Charlemagne in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Holy Roman empire Religion Christianity France Germany Empires The Medici move into Florence from their country home in the Mugello valley Go to Medici in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Commerce and industry Florence Italy Society The biblical kings and queens in the west porch of Chartres cathedral are a striking early example of Gothic sculpture Go to Gothic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Arts Sculpture French art France German merchants begin trading along the coasts of Latvia and Estonia, a region to which they give the name Livonia Go to Livonia (Estonia-Latvia, USA) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Commerce and industry Germany Society The merging of Catalonia with Aragon, by marriage, creates a power in northern Spain of comparable strength to Castile Go to Catalonia in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Spain
1154	Henry II, coming to the throne of England, is king or feudal overlord of an unbroken swathe of territory from the Tweed to the Pyrenees Go to Henry II (1133–89) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 France Rulers and politicians Britain
1157	A Russian prince, Andrei Bogolyubski, makes his capital east of Moscow at Vladimir, where he builds a cathedral and several churches Go to Vladimir in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Russia
c. 1160	Chrétien de Troyes and other French authors turn the stories of Arthur and his knights into a romance of courtly love Go to ‘Allegro, L’ in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Literature French literature Poetry France
1162	Thomas Becket, Lord Chancellor to Henry II, is forced by the king to accept the vacant post of archbishop of Canterbury Go to Becket, Thomas (c. 1120–70) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1164	Thomas Becket, having offended the king by his firm stand as archbishop of Canterbury, flees to a monastery near Paris Go to Becket, Thomas (c. 1120–70) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1169	Normans land in Ireland, seize Wexford, and in the following year capture Waterford and Dublin Go to Normans in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Ireland Britain
c. 1170	The English exchequer grows in importance under Henry II, taking its name from the table on which financial calculations are made Go to Exchequer in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain The first known mystery play, the Mystery of Adam, takes place outside a church somewhere in France Go to mystery plays in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Performing arts Theatre France Henry II arranges for the archbishop of York to crown his son, the 'Young King', as a joint ruler Go to Henry, the Young King (1155–83) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Thomas Becket, in France, suspends the English bishops who have participated in the coronation of the 'Young King' Go to Becket, Thomas (c. 1120–70) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain After an apparent reconciliation with Henry II, Thomas Becket leaves France and returns to Canterbury Go to Becket, Thomas (c. 1120–70) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Four knights, acting on an unguarded hint from Henry II, murder Thomas Becket on December 29 in his cathedral at Canterbury Go to Becket, St Thomas (?1120–70) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1171	The English king, Henry II, acknowledges Rhys ap Gruffydd as the lord of south Wales Go to Rhys ap Gruffydd (1132–97) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Henry II, the king of England, summons the Irish and Norman lords to do homage to him in Dublin Go to Henry II (1133–89) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization British Isles Ireland Britain
1174	The Scottish king, William the Lion, is captured raiding into Northumberland and is taken south with his feet tied beneath his horse Go to William I (1143–1214) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1175	The Gothic style is first seen in Britain in the new east end of Canterbury cathedral Go to Gothic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Architecture British architecture British Isles Gothic Britain
1176	Construction begins on London Bridge, the first stone bridge to be built across a tidal waterway Go to London bridge in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Technology Engineering British Isles Britain The first known eisteddfod is held during Christmas festivities at Rhys ap Gruffydd's court in Cardigan castle Go to eisteddfod in A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Performing arts British Isles Britain
1179	In a treaty signed at Cazorla, the kings of Castile and Aragon agree on a plan of cooperation against the Muslims Go to Amenhotep in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Spain
c. 1180	In Cordoba the Muslim philosopher Averroës writes commentaries on Aristotle that are influential throughout medieval Europe Go to Averroës in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Literature Philosophy Spain
1182	Resentment of western merchants results in a massacre of Roman Catholics by fellow Christians in Constantinople Go to Istanbul in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire 12th century Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Turkey Empires
1188	Representatives of the towns in Léon are summoned to one of the earliest known parliaments Go to León in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Democracy and dissent Spain
1189	The English king Henry II is succeeded by his third son as Richard I Go to Richard I (b. 8 Sept. 1157) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1190	A year after succeeding to the throne of England, Richard I sets off east as one of the leaders of the third crusade Go to Crusades in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty Religion Christianity British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Wars and Revolutions Britain
1192	Richard I, returning from the Holy Land in disguise, is recognized in an inn near Vienna and is imprisoned until England pays a massive ransom Go to Richard I (b. 8 Sept. 1157) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Austria Rulers and politicians Britain
1197	The three-year old Frederick II has a claim to the thrones of both Sicily and Germany on the death of his father, the emperor Henry VI Go to Henry VI (1165–97) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Holy Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Sicily Germany Italy Empires
1199	On the death of his brother, Richard I, John becomes king of England Go to John (1167–1216) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1200	The longbow, a weapon of great use to English armies, is probably first developed in Wales Go to longbow in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 12th century 13th century Weapons Wales British Isles Britain In the cathedral on Torcello, and in St Mark's, Venetian mosaics are a culmination in the west of the Byzantine tradition Go to mosaic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire 12th century 13th century Arts Italian art Venice Italy Empires Flemish towns begin to acquire municipal independence, as communes, following the earlier Italian trend Go to Communes in The Oxford Companion to Italian Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century 13th century Politics Democracy and dissent Belgium Netherlands German pressure eastwards (the Drang nach Osten) steadily brings colonists into regions previously occupied by Slavs Go to Drang nach Osten in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century 13th century Migration Germany Society The heresy of the Cathars (meaning 'pure' ones) is now so well established in southern France that they have bishops of their own Go to heresy in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century 13th century Religion Christianity France
1202	The fleet of the fourth crusade departs from Venice - only to be diverted from its purposes by Venetian guile Go to Crusades in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Venice Italy Empires Wars and Revolutions A German order, the Knights of the Sword, begins the forcible conversion of Latvia and Estonia to Christianity Go to Knights of the Sword in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity
1204	The French king, Philip II, takes Normandy from the English, and follows this success by taking Anjou a year later Go to Philip II (1165–1223) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization France The crusaders of the fourth crusade besiege, take and destroy the Christian city of Constantinople Go to Istanbul in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Turkey Empires Wars and Revolutions Venice takes the useful islands of Corfu and Crete as part of the spoils of the fourth crusade Go to Crusades in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Venice Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions A Latin empire is set up in Constantinople on the same basis as the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem Go to Latin kingdom of Jerusalem in The Oxford Companion to Western Art (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire 13th century Politics Jerusalem Turkey Italy Empires
c. 1205	Many of the treasures adorning the church of San Marco in Venice are loot taken from Constantinople during the fourth crusade Go to Venice in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire Crusades 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Venice Turkey Italy Empires Wars and Revolutions
1208	The murder of the pope's legate to Toulouse provokes the Albigensian crusade, which aims to wipe out the Catharist heresy Go to Albigensians in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity Papacy France
1210	St Francis and eleven companions tell Innocent III of their wish for a life of holy poverty in the bustle of the towns Go to Francis Of Assisi, St (1181/2–1226) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Italy
1212	Participants in the Children's Crusade suffer disaster after the waters of the Mediterranean fail to part for them Go to Children's Crusade (1212) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 13th century Religion Christianity Italy Wars and Revolutions
1215	St Dominic and his companions tell Innocent III of their wish to teach and preach in the bustle of the towns Go to Dominic, St (c.1174–1221) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Italy John, the king of England, fixes his seal to Magna Carta, which the barons place before him in a meadow called Runnymede Go to Magna Carta in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain In Magna Carta's lesser clauses (39 and 40) there are enshrined certain basic guarantees concerning the rule of law Go to Magna Carta in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century British Isles Britain
1216	The Dominicans are formally established by Pope Honorius III as Ordo Fratrum Praedicatorum, the Order of the Friars Preachers Go to Dominican Order in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Papacy Italy On the death of his father, King John, Henry III becomes king of England Go to Henry III (1207–72) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1220	Nearly 200 windows make Chartres cathedral the most magnificent display of early stained glass Go to Chartres in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Arts French art France Llewellyn ap Iorwerth acquires such authority over other Welsh chieftains that he is informally referred to as the prince of Wales Go to prince of Wales in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1222	Andrew II accepts the Golden Bull, a charter of liberties demanded by the nobles of Hungary Go to Andrew II of Hungary (1177–1235) in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Hungary
1223	The Franciscans are formally established by Honorius III as Ordo Fratrum Minorum, the Order of the Friars Minor Go to Franciscan Order in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Italy
1225	Magna Carta is reissued slightly modified when Henry III comes of age; in the version which becomes enshrined in English law Go to Henry III (b. 1 Oct. 1207) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1232	The kingdom of Granada is established with a Berber noble, Muhammad I, as the first king Go to acorn cup in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Spain
1233	Gregory IX sends Dominican friars to root out the remains of the Catharist heresy in France, thus launching the Inquisition Go to Gregory IX (c.1148–1241) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity Monasticism France Italy
1237	Batu Khan and his Mongols sweep into Russia, where they and their descendants become known as the Golden Horde Go to Golden Horde in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Migration Asia Central Asia West Asia Russia Society
1238	Work begins on the Alhambra, the palace fortress of the Muslim kings of Granada Go to Alhambra in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Architecture Spain
c. 1240	Haakon IV is the first ruler to build up a strong Norway, some two centuries after the region becomes a single kingdom Go to Haakon IV (1204–63) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Norway Alexander, a Russian prince, defeats a Swedish army on the frozen river Neva, thus winning his name Alexander Nevksy Go to Alexander Nevsky (1220–1263) in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles Russia
1241	Mongols of the Golden Horde defeat the Poles at Legnica and ravage the city of Cracow Go to Golden Horde in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Migration Battles Poland Society Mongols of the Golden Horde reach Hungary, where they graze their horses for the summer before withdrawing to the Volga Go to Golden Horde in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Migration Hungary Society
1243	Construction begins in Paris on the Sainte Chapelle, designed to house relics acquired by Louis IX, the king of France Go to Louis IX, St (1214–70) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Architecture French architecture Gothic France
1244	The siege of the Catharist stronghold of Montségur ends when 200 heretics are herded into a wooden stockade and are burnt Go to Montségur, Siege of in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity France
1248	Birger Jarl establishes a dynasty which brings all Sweden under a single rule Go to Sweden in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty
c. 1250	The Palio, in which horses race round the Campo in Siena, is held from this time Go to Palio in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Sports and games Italy Society A school of translation is set up in Toledo, to translate classical Greek texts from the Arabic versions into Latin Go to Toledo in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Spain France becomes the first kingdom to establish a permanent parliament when Louis IX reserves a chamber in his palace for quarterly sessions Go to Louis IX, St (1214–70) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Democracy and dissent France
1252	Alexander Nevsky, appointed grand prince of Vladimir in 1252, thrives by collaborating with the Mongols of the Golden Horde Go to Alexander Nevsky (1220–1263) in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Russia
1253	Construction begins of two basilicas, one above the other on a hillside in Assisi, in memory of St Francis Go to basilica in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Religion Christianity Italy
1255	The pope, eager to fill the vacant throne of Sicily, offers it to a son of Henry III of England but gets no firm response Go to Henry III (1207–72) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Papacy British Isles Sicily Italy Britain
1256	Pope Alexander IV establishes a third order of preaching friars, the Augustinians Go to Augustinians in The Oxford Companion to Family and Local History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Religion Christianity Monasticism Papacy Italy
1258	Henry III accepts severe curtailment of his powers in the Provisions of Oxford, but then asks the pope to absolve him from his oath Go to Henry III (1207–72) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Papacy British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1259	Nicola Pisano completes a pulpit for Pisa, borrowing details from Roman sarcophagi - an early example of a new interest in the classical past Go to Pisano, Nicola (c.1225–c.1278) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 13th century Arts Sculpture Italian art Italy
c. 1260	A new form of poetry is written in northern Italy, described later by Dante as a sweet new style - the dolce stil nuovo Go to dolce stil novo in The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Literature Italian literature Poetry Italy
1262	The Norwegian king, Haakon IV, annexes Iceland as his personal fief, bringing to an end the commonwealth established in AD 930 Go to Haakon IV (1204–63) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty Norway
1263	Pope Urban IV offers Sicily to a French prince, Charles of Anjou, who marches south in 1266 to fight for the kingdom Go to Charles I of Anjou (1226–85) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Papacy Sicily France Italy A Scottish victory over the Norwegians at Largs results in the recovery of the western isles Go to Largs, battle of (1263) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century War Battles Scotland British Isles Norway Britain
1264	Simon de Montfort, leading the barons in rebellion, captures Henry III and his son Edward at Lewes Go to Montfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester (c. 1208–65) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Protest and rebellion Battles British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1265	Prince Edward, escaping from captivity, defeats and kills Simon de Montfort at Evesham Go to Montfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester (c. 1208–65) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Protest and rebellion Battles British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1266	Thomas Aquinas begins the outstanding work of medieval scholasticism, his Summa Theologiae Go to Summa Theologiae in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Literature Philosophy Italy
1267	In a treaty agreed at Shrewsbury, the English king Henry III acknowledges Llewellyn ap Gruffydd as the prince of Wales Go to prince of Wales in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1268	The first mention of a lens occurs in a manuscript by Roger Bacon, to be soon followed by the invention of spectacles Go to Bacon, Roger (c. 1214–92) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Technology Inventions and discoveries British Isles Britain
1270	Novgorod asserts its independence, electing its own city magistrate to take over the role of the local Russian prince Go to Novgorod (Novgorod/Russia) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Russia
1271	Marco Polo, aged seventeen, sets off from Venice on his journey to the east Go to Polo, Marco (c.1254–1324) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Travel and transport Venice Italy Society
1272	Edward I is in Sicily when he becomes king of England, on the death of his father, Henry III Go to Edward I (b. 18 June 1239) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Sicily British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1274	Dante, aged nine, is overwhelmed by the beauty of Beatrice - a child a year younger than himself who later becomes his poetic inspiration Go to Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Italy
1281	An incident in a church service sparks the uprising known as the Sicilian Vespers, in which 2000 French are killed overnight in Sicily Go to Sicilian Vespers in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Protest and rebellion Sicily Italy
1282	An uprising by Llewellyn ap Gruffydd, the prince of Wales, ends with his own death and the subjugation of Wales by the king of England, Edward I Go to Edward I (b. 18 June 1239) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty War Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1283	Edward I begins a series of powerful castles - Harlech, Caernarfon and Conwy in this year alone - to subdue the Welsh Go to Harlech castle in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1289	Edward I of England arranges for his 5-year-old heir to marry Margaret the Maid of Norway, the 7-year-old heiress to the kingdom of Scotland Go to Margaret, Maid of Norway (c. 1283–90) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Norway Rulers and politicians Britain
1290	The death of Margaret, child heiress to the Scottish throne, results in John de Balliol being chosen as king Go to John Balliol (b. c.1250) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain The classical work of the Kabbalah, the Zohar, is almost certainly the work of the Spanish Kabbalist Moses de Leon Go to Moses de Leon in A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Religion Judaism Spain The Jews in England are driven out of the country, soon to be followed by those in France Go to Jews in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity Judaism British Isles Britain
1295	The parliament summoned by Edward I in Westminster Hall is later seen as a 'model' for the breadth of its representation Go to Edward I (b. 18 June 1239) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Democracy and dissent British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Marco Polo is back in Venice after an absence of 25 years in the east Go to Polo, Marco (c.1254–1324) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Travel and transport Venice Italy Society
1296	Edward I invades Scotland, massacres the people of Berwick, captures John de Balliol and brings to Westminster the Stone of Scone Go to Scone, stone of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1297	The English government in Dublin calls a parliament on the lines of England's recent Model Parliament Go to Model Parliament in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Democracy and dissent British Isles Ireland Britain William Wallace's victory over the English at Stirling Bridge enables him to rule Scotland on behalf of John de Balliol Go to Wallace, William (d. 1305) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1298	The authorities in Siena publish strict regulations for the design of the buildings around a new central piazza, the Campo Go to Siena in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Architecture Italian architecture Italy Marco Polo, in prison in Genoa, is persuaded by a fellow prisoner to narrate his adventures Go to Polo, Marco (c.1254–1324) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Travel and transport Italy Society The English longbow, in one of its early appearances, proves too much for the Scots at Falkirk Go to longbow in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Weapons Scotland British Isles Britain Edward I's victory at Falkirk ends the career of William Wallace, of whom nothing more is heard until his capture and execution in 1305 Go to Wallace, William (d. 1305) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century War Battles Scotland British Isles Britain
1299	Southampton boasts the earliest known bowling green, mentioned in a document of this year Go to bowls in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century Sports and games British Isles Society Britain
c. 1300	Flying buttresses are a striking new structural feature on the exterior of Gothic cathedrals Go to Greek pottery in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century 14th century Architecture Gothic The Early English phase in Gothic architecture gives way to the Decorated style Go to Decorated style in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century 14th century Architecture British architecture British Isles Gothic Britain Boniface VIII declares a Jubilee or Holy Year, with plenary indulgences for pilgrims who make their way to Rome Go to Boniface VIII (c.1234–1303) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century 14th century Religion Christianity Italy The Italian communes employ powerful leaders, or signori, in a trend which leads away from oligarchy and towards princely rule Go to Communes in The Oxford Companion to Italian Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 13th century 14th century Italian Renaissance Politics Italy The bankers of northern Italy develop a method of accountancy - double-entry book-keeping - which will have lasting significance Go to double-entry book-keeping in A Dictionary of Accounting (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 13th century 14th century Italian Renaissance Commerce and industry Italy Society Duns Scotus, known as the Subtle Doctor in medieval times, later provides humanists with the name Dunsman or dunce Go to Duns Scotus, Bl Johannes (c.1265–1308) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 13th century 14th century Literature English literature Literature in English Philosophy British Isles Britain
1301	Edward I, conqueror of Wales, bestows the cherished title 'prince of Wales' on his own heir, the future Edward II Go to prince of Wales in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Andrew III of Hungary dies without an heir, bringing to an end four centuries of rule by the descendants of Arpad Go to Árpád dynasty in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Hungary
1302	The estates-general of France gather for the first time, in Notre Dame, to consider the king's relationship with the pope Go to States-General in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Democracy and dissent Papacy France Dante, a member of the White faction in Florence, is sentenced to death by the Blacks - and never returns to his native city Go to Blacks and Whites in The Oxford Companion to Italian Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Politics Persecution and repression Florence Italy
c. 1305	Enrico degli Scrovegni employs Giotto to paint the cycle of frescoes in his chapel in Padua Go to Giotto (c.1267–1337) [Art] in The Oxford Dictionary of Reference and Allusion (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Arts Painting Italian painting Italian art Italy
1306	After the murder of his rival, in a church in Dumfries, Robert de Bruce is crowned king of Scots at Scone Go to Robert I (‘the Bruce’) (b. 11 July 1274) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Terrorism and assassination Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Robert de Bruce, in hiding on the island of Rathlin, is supposedly given a lesson in perseverance by a spider Go to Robert I (‘the Bruce’) (b. 11 July 1274) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics British Isles Ireland Britain
1307	The English king Edward I dies campaigning near Carlisle, on an expedition north against his Scottish rival Robert the Bruce Go to Edward I (b. 18 June 1239) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain On the death of his father, Edward I, Edward II becomes king of England Go to miniature painting in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Dante, in exile from Florence, begins work on The Divine Comedy - completing it just before his death, 14 years later Go to Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Literature Italian literature Poetry Florence Italy
1308	The cathedral authorities in Siena commission from Duccio the great altarpiece which becomes known as the Maestà Go to Duccio di Buoninsegna (1318) in The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Arts Painting Italian painting Italian art Italy The Teutonic knights seize the coastal area round Gdansk, cutting off Poland's access to the sea Go to Teutonic Knight in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Conquest and colonization Germany Poland
1309	Clement V moves the papacy to Avignon, in a move which is expected to be temporary but which lasts for nearly seventy years Go to Clement V (1264–1314) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Reformation Politics Religion Christianity Papacy France Italy The hiatus on the Hungarian throne ends when the Angevin contender is crowned as Charles I Go to Angevin in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Hungary The Knights of St John capture the island of Rhodes, which they rule as their own sovereign state for more than two centuries Go to Hospitallers in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Greece
1310	Fifty-four Knights Templars are burned at the stake, during the campaign of the French king to destroy the order Go to Knight Templar in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity France
1314	After years of guerrilla warfare, Robert de Bruce defeats the English conclusively at Bannockburn - and becomes at last secure in his kingdom Go to Robert I (‘the Bruce’) (b. 11 July 1274) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1316	Edward Bruce is crowned king of Ireland at Dundalk, but his uprising ends two years later when he is killed in battle with the English Go to Bruce, Edward (d. 1318) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles Ireland Britain
c. 1320	In places such as Siena and Orvieto, Italian architects add a blaze of colour to the more restrained northern pattern of Gothic Go to Gothic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Architecture Italian architecture Gothic Italy Philippe de Vitry, in his Ars Nova ('New Art'), lays out the basis of musical notation Go to Adeste fideles in The Oxford Companion to Music (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Performing arts Music France Florence becomes a centre of international finance, with the Bardi and Peruzzi families acting as bankers to Europe's rulers Go to Bardi in The Oxford Companion to Italian Literature (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Commerce and industry Florence Italy Society Wladyslaw I is crowned king of Poland in Cracow, which he makes his capital city Go to Cracow (Australia, Poland) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Poland
1323	A treaty divides Finland between two powerfully competitive neighbours, Sweden and Novgorod Go to Novgorod (Novgorod/Russia) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Finland Russia
1326	Moscow acquires new prestige when the metropolitan (or patriarch) of the Russian Orthodox church moves his residence from Vladimir Go to Orthodox Church in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox Russia Edward II is captured and imprisoned by his queen, Isabella, and her lover, Mortimer Go to miniature painting in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1327	Petrarch glimpses Laura in a church in Avignon and falls helplessly in love with her - or so he tells us Go to Petrarch (1304–74) in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Literature Italian literature Poetry Italy Isabella forces Edward II to renounce the English throne in favour of their 15-year-old son, Edward III Go to Bruce, Edward (d. 1318) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Edward II, imprisoned by his wife and her lover, dies in Berkeley castle - almost certainly the victim of murder Go to miniature painting in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1328	When Charles IV dies, for the first time in more than 400 years of the Capetian dynasty there is no son or brother to inherit the French crown Go to Capetian (987–1328) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France Wars and Revolutions The English finally accept a treaty, in Edinburgh, declaring that Robert de Bruce is king of a Scotland 'free and divided from the kingdom of England' Go to Bruce, Robert (1210–95) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain A French cousin, Philip of Valois, is selected to succeed Charles IV - in preference to an English cousin, Edward III Go to Philip VI (1293–1350) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France Wars and Revolutions
1329	On the death of his father, Robert the Bruce, David II becomes king of Scotland Go to David II (1324–71) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1333	The long reign of Casimir III, known as the Great, is a time of prosperity and achievement in Poland Go to Casimir III (1310–70) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Poland
1337	Philip VI of France confiscates Guienne, a fief belonging to Edward III of England - whose response begins the Hundred Years' War Go to Hundred Years War in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 France Rulers and politicians Wars and Revolutions Britain
c. 1340	The Doge's Palace, begun in its present form in this year, is only one of the spectacular beauties of Venetian Gothic Go to Gothic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Architecture Italian architecture Venice Gothic Italy Edward III, in Ghent, publicly assumes the title and the arms of the king of France Go to Bruce, Edward (d. 1318) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 France Rulers and politicians Wars and Revolutions Britain William of Ockham advocates paring down arguments to their essentials, an approach later known as Ockham's Razor Go to Ockham's razor n. in A Dictionary of Psychology (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Literature English literature Literature in English Philosophy British Isles Britain
1341	A laurel wreath is placed on the brow of Petrarch in Rome, in a renewal of interest in the classical world Go to Petrarch (1304–74) in The Oxford Companion to Western Art (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Literature Italian literature Poetry Italy
1345	The bridge now known as Ponte Vecchio is constructed in Florence (replacing an older old bridge) Go to Florence in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Architecture Italian architecture Florence Italy The great Byzantine altarpiece of St Mark's, the Pala d'Oro, is adjusted to take its present form Go to Pala D'oro in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Arts Italian art Italy Edward III of England, defaulting on his massive debts, drives the Florentine banking families of Bardi and Peruzzi into bankruptcy Go to Bruce, Edward (d. 1318) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Commerce and industry Florence Italy Society
1346	The more mobile English force, of longbows and infantry, defeats at Crécy the unwieldy crossbows and heavy cavalry of the French Go to Crécy, battle of (1346) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century War Battles France Wars and Revolutions
c. 1347	Edward III establishes a new kind of knighthood with the Order of the Garter, conferred purely as an honour Go to Garter, Order of the in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Social and domestic British Isles Society Britain The English siege of Calais ends when six burghers of the town, with ropes around their necks, offer their lives to save their fellow citizens Go to Calais, possession of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century War France Wars and Revolutions Cola di Rienzo, appointed tribune of the people, enjoys a few months of dictatorial powers in Rome before the citizens tire of him Go to Rienzo, Cola di (c.1313–54) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Politics Democracy and dissent Rome Italy
c. 1349	Boccaccio begins his Decameron, supposedly the stories told by young Florentine men and women sheltering from the Black Death Go to Boccaccio, Giovanni (1313–75) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Florence Italy
c. 1350	The Perpendicular style develops from the Decorated phase in English Gothic architecture Go to Perpendicular in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Architecture British architecture British Isles Gothic Britain Water power is used in England for the heavy work of fulling cloth, in mills which can be seen as a first step towards the Industrial Revolution Go to Industrial Revolution in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Commerce and industry British Isles Society Britain Armies of mercenaries, led by condottieri, conduct Italian warfare at an often extortionate rate Go to condottieri in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance War Italy Boccaccio, visiting Petrarch in Florence, is inspired to devote himself to the pursuit of classical studies Go to Boccaccio, Giovanni (1313–75) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Florence Italy
1354	Gallipoli is taken by the Ottoman Turks, giving them their first foothold in Europe Go to Ottoman empire in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire 14th century Politics Conquest and colonization Migration Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Asia West Asia Turkey Society Empires
1356	The battle of Poitiers ends, on the third day, with victory for the English and the capture of the French king, John II Go to Poitiers, Battle of (19 September 1356) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Battles France Wars and Revolutions
1360	After four years of captivity in Bordeaux and London, the French king John II is released for a promised ransom of 3 million gold crowns Go to Charles IV (1316–78) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France Wars and Revolutions
1364	A great clock is completed in Padua, regulated mechanically by foliot and escapement Go to escapement in A Dictionary of Physics (6 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Technology Inventions and discoveries Italy
c. 1367	A narrator who calls himself Will, and whose name may be Langland, begins the epic poem of Piers Plowman Go to Piers Plowman in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Literature English literature Literature in English Poetry British Isles Britain One of four new yeomen of the chamber in Edward III's household is Geoffrey Chaucer Go to Chaucer, Geoffrey (c.1343–1400 in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Literature English literature Literature in English Poetry British Isles Britain
1369	The marriage of the duke of Burgundy to the heiress of Flanders lays the foundation for the great territorial expansion of Burgundy Go to Burgundy in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Belgium France Netherlands
1371	On the death of his uncle, David II, Robert Stewart becomes king of Scotland as Robert II Go to Robert II (1316–90) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
c. 1375	The courtly poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight tells of a mysterious visitor to the round table of King Arthur Go to Gawain and the Green Knight, Sir in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Literature English literature Literature in English Poetry British Isles Britain
c. 1376	John Wycliffe, writing mainly in Oxford, is critical of the contemporary church and can find no basis for the pope's authority Go to Wycliffe, John (c.1330–84) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Reformation Religion Christianity Papacy British Isles Britain
1377	10-year-old Richard II follows his grandfather, Edward III, on the English throne Go to Richard II (1367–1400) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain The papal curia returns to Rome in what would seem a conclusive move if there were not, two years later, two popes - one of them elected back in Avignon Go to Curia in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Reformation Politics Religion Christianity Papacy Rome France Italy Jogaila inherits a pagan Lithuanian kingdom which has been extended as far south as Kiev Go to Lithuania in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty
1378	John Hawkwood, a condottiere in command of the White Company, is appointed captain general of Florence Go to condottiere in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Politics Florence Italy
1379	The French cardinals, objecting to the new Italian pope, elect their own man as Clement VII - and thus inaugurate the Great Schism of the papacy Go to Great Schism (1378–1417) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Reformation Politics Religion Christianity Papacy France Italy
1380	Dimitri, grand prince of Moscow, leads other Russian princes in a crushing victory over the Mongols on the Kulikovo plain Go to Kulikovo Pole, battle of (8 September 1380) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles Russia The Venetian blockade of Chioggia costs Genoa her fleet and ends Genoese rivalry with Venice in the eastern Mediterranean Go to Alemán, Mateo (1547–1620) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance War Venice Italy
1381	A poll tax imposed in England provokes widespread unrest, which flares up in the Peasants' Revolt Go to Peasants' Revolt in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Protest and rebellion British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Wat Tyler, leader of the Kentish rebels, meets Richard II at Smithfield - before being struck and wounded by the Lord Mayor of London Go to Tyler, Wat (d. 1381) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Protest and rebellion British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1384	Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the signore of Milan, sets about enlarging his territory - seizing Vicenza, Verona and Padua between 1384 and 1388 Go to Visconti, Gian Galeazzo (1351–1402) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Italian Renaissance Politics Dynasties and royalty War Italy
1385	The victory at Aljubarrota, securing the Portuguese throne for John I, is commemorated in the Dominican abbey called Batalha Go to Batalha (Portugal) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles Portugal Chaucer completes Troilus and Criseyde, his long poem about a legendary love affair in ancient Troy Go to Troilus and Criseyde in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Literature English literature Literature in English Poetry British Isles Britain
1386	John I, newly victorious in Portugal, proposes an alliance with England which has never been revoked Go to John I (1357–1433) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics British Isles Portugal Britain A clock, designed only to strike the hours, is installed in Salisbury cathedral and is still working today Go to Salisbury in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Technology Inventions and discoveries British Isles Britain Jadwiga, 12-year-old queen of Poland, marries Jogaila, her 34-year-old pagan neighbour - uniting the crowns of Poland and Lithuania Go to Lithuania in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Poland Jogaila, baptized a Roman Catholic before marrying Jadwiga, brings Lithuania into the Christian fold - the last part of Europe to be converted Go to Roman Catholic Church in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Religion Christianity Catholic and orthodox
c. 1387	Chaucer begins an ambitious scheme for 100 Canterbury Tales, of which he completes only 24 by the time of his death Go to Canterbury Tales in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Literature English literature Literature in English Poetry British Isles Britain
1389	Victory at Kosovo gives the Ottoman Turks control over Serbia, which becomes a vassal state Go to Ottoman empire in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire 14th century Politics Conquest and colonization Battles Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Empires With a victory near Falköping, Margaret becomes regent of Sweden as well as Denmark and Norway Go to Sweden in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Battles Denmark Norway
1390	On the death of his father, Robert II, Robert III becomes king of Scotland Go to Robert III (c. 1337–1406) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Fan vaulting becomes part of the Gothic tradition, seen to perfection in the cloisters of Gloucester cathedral Go to fan-vaulting in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Architecture British architecture British Isles Gothic Britain
1391	Construction begins on a canal from Lübeck south to the Elbe, linking the Baltic and the North Sea Go to Elbe in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Canals Travel and transport Technology Engineering Germany Society
1392	Charles VI, king of France, suffers the first of many violent fits of madness Go to Charles VI (1368–1422) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France Wars and Revolutions
1393	The Ottoman sultan Bayazid I brings the Slav kingdom of Bulgaria under his control Go to Bulgaria in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Byzantine empire 14th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dynasties and royalty Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire Empires
1395	Philip II of Burgundy commissions from Netherlands sculptor Claus Sluter a work, the Well of Moses, which launches the northern Renaissance Go to Sluter, Claus (c.1350) in The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century Arts Sculpture French art Belgium France Netherlands
c. 1397	The English king, Richard II, commissions a diptych (the Wilton Diptych) showing himself being presented to the Virgin and Child Go to Wilton diptych in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Arts Painting British painting British art British Isles Britain With the coronation of the 16-year-old Eric of Pomerania, the crowns of Denmark, Norway and Sweden are formally united for the first time Go to Acciaiuoli family in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Denmark Norway
1398	A dangerous feud develops between two of England's most powerful barons, Henry of Bolingbroke (son of John of Gaunt) and Thomas de Mowbray Go to Henry IV (1366–1413) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Protest and rebellion British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Richard II banishes Thomas de Mowbray for life and Henry of Bolingbroke for ten years Go to Richard II (1367–1400) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Protest and rebellion British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1399	John of Gaunt dies and Richard II denies Henry of Bolingbroke his Lancastrian inheritance, declaring Gaunt's vast estates forfeit to the crown Go to John of Gaunt (b. Mar. 1340) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Protest and rebellion British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Henry of Bolingbroke returns to England to lead an armed rebellion against his cousin the king Go to Henry IV (1366–1413) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Richard II surrenders at Conwy to the forces led by Henry of Bolingbroke Go to Richard II (1367–1400) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Richard II is deposed by parliament and Boliingbroke is proclaimed king of England, as Henry IV, introducing the royal house of Lancaster Go to Henry IV (1366–1413) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Richard II cedes his crown to Bolingbroke, as Henry IV, and a few months later dies in Pontefract castle - probably starved to death Go to Richard II (1367–1400) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1400	Richard II dies in Pontefract castle, almost certainly starved to death on the orders of the new king - insecure on his throne as an undeniable usurper Go to Richard II (1367–1400) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain The followers of Wycliffe, after his death, become known as Lollards or 'mutterers' Go to Lollards in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century 15th century Reformation Religion Christianity British Isles Britain The English mystery cycles are performed by trade guilds, on carts pulled from audience to audience around the city Go to mystery plays in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century 15th century Performing arts Theatre British Isles Britain The Welsh rise against the English and proclaim Owain Glyn Dwr as their own prince of Wales Go to Owain Glyn Dwr (b. c.1359) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 14th century 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Protest and rebellion Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain Majolica, or tin-glazed earthenware, reaches Italy from Majorca and thus gets its name Go to majolica in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 14th century 15th century Italian Renaissance Arts Decorative arts Italian art Italy
1404	Owain Glyn Dwr captures Aberystwyth and Harlech from the English and sets up an independent Welsh administration Go to Owain Glyn Dwr (b. c.1359) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1406	Pisa is captured by Florence, to be followed a few years later by the purchase of the seaport of Livorno Go to Pisa in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 15th century Italian Renaissance Politics Conquest and colonization War Florence Italy On the death of his father, Robert III, James I becomes king of Scotland Go to James I (b. 25 July 1394) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Scotland British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1407	Rivalry between factions of the French royal family results in the murder in Paris of the king's brother, Louis duke of Orléans, and the onset of civil war Go to Charles VI (1368–1422) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France Wars and Revolutions
1408	Driven from Aberystwyth and Harlech, Owain Glyn Dwr loses support - and the last Welsh rebellion fades away Go to Owain Glyn Dwr (b. c.1359) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Protest and rebellion Wales British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Britain
1409	The Council at Pisa elects a new pope, Alexander V, without persuading the other two to resign - bringing the total to an unprecedented three Go to Pisa, Council of in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 15th century Italian Renaissance Reformation Politics Religion Christianity Papacy Italy
1410	The Poles defeat the Teutonic knights between Tannenberg and Grunwald, bringing the coastal strip around Gdansk into the Polish kingdom Go to Teutonic Knight in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics Conquest and colonization Battles Poland The Viking settlement in Greenland ends, after 400 years, when the last ship leaves the colony and sails for Norway Go to Greenland in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics Conquest and colonization Norway
1411	The linen drapers of Florence commission a statue of St Mark from Donatello, who carves for Orsanmichele the first free-standing Renaissance sculpture Go to Donatello (c.1386–1466) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 15th century Italian Renaissance Arts Sculpture Italian art Florence Italy
1412	The three Limburg brothers illustrate for the duke of Berry the Très Riches Heures, one of the masterpieces of International Gothic Go to International Gothic in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Arts Painting French painting French art France
1413	Henry V succeeds his father, Henry IV, as king of England Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British Isles British monarchs - from 1066 Rulers and politicians Wars and Revolutions Britain
1415	Filippo Brunelleschi begins studying the ruins of classical Rome, with a view to rediscovering classical architecture Go to Brunelleschi, Filippo (1377) in The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 15th century Italian Renaissance Architecture Italian architecture Italy Henry V captures the French stronghold of Harfleur - where, in Shakespeare, he urges his dear friends 'once more unto the breach' Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War France Wars and Revolutions Henry V wins a victory on St Crispin's day at Agincourt, against a much larger and more heavily armed French force Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War Battles France Wars and Revolutions A Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator, becomes fascinated by exploration down the coast of Africa and commissions successive voyages Go to Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Exploration European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire Africa Portugal Society Empires
1418	A competition is launched for an architect to construct a dome above Florence's cathedral, and is won by Brunelleschi Go to Brunelleschi, Filippo (1377) in The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (4 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Renaissance 15th century Italian Renaissance Architecture Italian architecture Florence Italy
1419	After a six-month siege Henry V makes a triumphal entry into Rouen, the city of his Norman ancestors Go to Henry V (b. 16 Sept. 1387) in The Kings and Queens of Britain (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century War France Wars and Revolutions John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, is murdered by the Armagnac faction in the presence of the dauphin - escalating France's civil war Go to Aal, Johannes (c.1500–1551) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War France Wars and Revolutions
c. 1420	Glazed windows become a feature of the richer homes of northern Europe Go to windows in The Oxford Companion to Architecture (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Architecture Technology The Portuguese, discovering the lush and uninhabited island of Madeira, send colonists to settle it Go to Madeira in The Oxford Companion to Architecture (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire Africa Portugal Empires The treaty of Troyes, between the English and the Burgundian faction, grants Henry V the status of heir to the French throne Go to Troyes, treaty of (1420) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Hundred Years' War Britain 1066-1500 15th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British I

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