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Timeline: Africa

Years: c. 15 million years ago - 2011	Subject: Encyclopedias, Geographical reference
Publisher: HistoryWorld	Online Publication Date: 2012
Current online version: 2012	eISBN: 9780191735752

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BCE CE

Year	Event
c. 15 million years ago	A primate of this period, at ease both in the trees and on the ground, is probably the common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans Go to Simiiformes in A Dictionary of Zoology (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Science Life sciences East Africa South Africa
c. 6 million years ago	Various species of ape develop the habit of walking upright on two feet Go to Paranthropus in A Dictionary of Zoology (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science Life sciences East Africa South Africa
c. 4.5 million years ago	Certain primates, in eastern and southern Africa, are by now sufficiently like humans to be classed as hominids Go to hominid in A Dictionary of Biology (6 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science Life sciences East Africa South Africa
c. 4.4 million years ago	Ardi, the earliest known individual of partially human type (or hominid), is of the species Ardipithecus, in the Awash valley region of Ethiopia Go to Ardi in New Oxford American Dictionary (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science Life sciences East Africa Ethiopia
c. 3.6 million years old	Two or three hominid individuals, probably Australopithecus Afarensis, walk upright through volcanic ash at Laetoli, 30 miles south of Olduvai Gorge, and their footprints are preserved within subsequent ash deposits Go to Australopithecus in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa
c. 3.2 million years ago	A female of the species Australopithecus Afarensis (nicknamed Lucy when her skeleton is found), lives in the Afar Depression in Ethiopia within 50 miles of where her predecessor Ardi was unearthed Go to Australopithecine in A Dictionary of Genetics (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science Life sciences East Africa Ethiopia
c. 2.6 million to 14,000 years ago	The Palaeolithic era or Old Stone age begins, characterized by hominid and human use of unpolished chipped stone tools Go to Palaeolithic in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa
c. 2.6 to 1.2 million years ago	The earliest Palaeolithic era, known as the Lower Palaeolithic, covers the period before the emergence of homo sapiens in the form of Neanderthal man Go to Neanderthal man in A Dictionary of Biology (6 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa Australopithecus Boisei lives in East Africa, and is possibly the first hominid species to use stone tools Go to Paranthropus in A Dictionary of Zoology (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Science East Africa South Africa
c. 2.5 million years ago	The earliest known chipped stone tools are made by hominids at Gona, in the Awash Valley in Ethiopia, close to the region where Ardi and Lucy lived many millennia earlier Go to hominid in A Dictionary of Biology (6 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa
c. 2.2 million years ago	Creatures of the genus Homo, classified as early modern humans, are living in east Africa Go to Homo in A Dictionary of Genetics (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science Life sciences Migration East Africa Society
c. 2.2 to 1.4 million years ago	Homo Habilis, the earliest widely acknowledged species in the genus Homo, lives in East Africa with a brain size much greater than the contemporary Australopithecus Boisei Go to Homo habilis in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa
c. 1.85 million years ago	A hominid, nicknamed Twiggy and thought to be in the species Homo habilis, is living in East Africa Go to Homo habilis in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa
c. 1.8 million years ago	A species of human in east Africa, Homo erectus, is probably the first identifiable ancestor of modern man Go to Homo erectus in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa
1.6 million years ago	A Homo erectus boy, aged about ten, lives near Lake Turkana in Kenya and dies at Nariokotome Go to Homo erectus in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory Science East Africa Humans in coastal areas of South Africa extend their diet to include shellfish and other marine sources of food Go to Speech in Magic Universe: A Grand Tour of Modern Science (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Evolution Prehistory
77,000 years ago	In the Blombos cave in South Africa stones are engraved with patterns of lines, either decorative or practical (as a form of tally) Go to Speech in Magic Universe: A Grand Tour of Modern Science (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Science South Africa
c. 30,000 years ago	Painted and engraved images, on the rock face in a cave near Twyfelfontein in Namibia, date from this period Go to cave art in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Arts Painting Science South Africa
c. 5000 BCE	The Sahara, damp enough for the hippopotamus, supports neolithic communities until it begins to dry up in about 3000 BC Go to Neolithic in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Science Central Africa East Africa North Africa
c. 4400 BCE	The first evidence of a loom comes from this period in Egypt, but some simple method of holding the warp must be as old as weaving Go to weaving in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Science Technology Inventions and discoveries North Africa Egypt
c. 4000 BCE	A simple hand-held plough is in use in Egypt and Mesopotamia, at least 1000 years before a heavier version is pulled by oxen Go to Land Transportation in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory Neolithic Technology Inventions and discoveries Mesopotamia North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Iraq
c. 3100 BCE	Upper and Lower Egypt are unified into a single kingdom, inaugurating the first Egyptian dynasty Go to Egypt, ancient in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt The Egyptians paint murals on the walls of tombs, designed to help the occupants in the next world Go to Egyptian art in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Painting Religion North Africa Egypt The Egyptian hieroglyphic script develops at much the same time as the Sumerian cuneiform Go to writing in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory 3100-1000 BCE North Africa Egypt The invention of writing marks the transition, in academic terms, from prehistory to history Go to writing in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Prehistory 3100-1000 BCE Communication Mesopotamia North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Iraq The pharaoh Narmer celebrates a victory with a sculpted relief showing his personal dominance over the enemy Go to Narmer (3150 bce) in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Sculpture North Africa Egypt
c. 3000 BCE	An easily portable writing surface is developed, from the papyrus plant of the Nile Go to papyrus in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Technology North Africa Egypt The lever is in use in both Mesopotamia and Egypt Go to Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Technology Inventions and discoveries Mesopotamia North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Iraq Oxen are given the heavy work of pulling the plough, previously done by men Go to plough in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Neolithic 3100-1000 BCE Social and domestic North Africa Asia West Asia Society The ass, until now roaming wild from northeast Africa to Mesopotamia, is domesticated in Egypt Go to ass in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Neolithic 3100-1000 BCE Social and domestic North Africa Egypt Society The earliest known currency, consisting of gold bars, is in use in Egypt and Mesopotamia Go to Sumer in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Commerce and industry Mesopotamia North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Iraq Society The world's earliest known board game, senet, is played in Egypt Go to Games in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Sports and games North Africa Egypt Society
2781 BCE	Sirius rises in this year on the first day of the first Egyptian month - a rare event which possibly launches the Egyptian calendar system Go to Sothic cycle in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Science Astronomy and space North Africa Egypt
c. 2620 BCE	Imhotep creates the first pyramid - the 'step pyramid' at Saqqara - as a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser Go to Imhotep (fl. c.2700 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture North Africa Egypt
c. 2580 BCE	Egypt enters the period known as the Old Kingdom, its first era of monumental architecture Go to Old Kingdom in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
c. 2500 BCE	The first and largest of the three great pyramids at Giza is built for the pharaoh Khufu, later known to the Greeks as Cheops Go to Khufu (2609–2584bce) in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Seven Wonders of the World Architecture Religion North Africa Egypt A boat of cedar planks, some 44 metres long, is buried at Giza Go to Egypt in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Travel and transport North Africa Egypt Society The largest sculpture of the ancient world, a sphinx with the face of the pharaoh Khufu, is carved in situ at Giza Go to Sphinx (West Asia) in A Dictionary of World Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Sculpture North Africa Egypt To preserve bodies in perpetuity, the Egyptian ruling class develops the elaborate and lengthy process of mummifying an eviscerated corpse Go to mummification in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion North Africa Egypt It is not known when cats are first domesticated, but from the start of Egyptian civilization they are sacred animals in temples Go to Bastet (West Asia) in A Dictionary of World Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion North Africa Egypt To ensure continued comfort in the afterlife, rich Egyptians have models placed in their tombs of the necessary servants and utensils Go to shabti in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion North Africa Egypt
c. 2000 BCE	Mentuhotep II wins control of all Egypt, establishing the period known as the Middle Kingdom Go to Middle Kingdom in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt Bantu-speaking tribes begin to spread through Africa, from their original homelands south of the Sahara Go to Bantu in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Migration Central Africa East Africa Society Africa south of the equatorial forests is largely inhabited by the Khoisan, of whom the San and the Hottentots are the modern survivors Go to Khoisan in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Migration Central Africa East Africa South Africa West Africa Society The centre of power in Egypt moves to the interior, with the capital at Thebes rather than Memphis Go to Thebes, Egypt in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
1850 BCE	Wrestlers are painted on the walls of an Egyptian tomb, performing most of the holds and falls still in use today See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Painting Sports and games North Africa Egypt Society
c. 1750 BCE	A mathematical papyrus, copied out by Ahmes, an Egyptian scribe, offers some of the world's first exam questions Go to Scribes in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Science North Africa Egypt
c. 1700 BCE	The biblical account suggests that around this period the Hebrews are a captive tribe in Egypt Go to Israelites in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Migration Slavery North Africa Egypt Society
c. 1630 BCE	The Hyksos, arriving from the middle east, win control of Egypt and rule for a century Go to Hyksos in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia
c. 1550 BCE	Egyptian tombs include paintings of a kind to help the occupants in the next world, whether in the Book of the Dead or on the walls Go to Egyptian Book of the Dead in The Oxford Companion to the Book (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Painting Religion North Africa Egypt
c. 1540 BCE	The New Kingdom begins in Egypt, bringing the most spectacular of all the dynasties Go to New Kingdom in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt The god Osiris, in his tall white headdress, represents in Egyptian tombs the idea of resurrection in the next world Go to Osiris in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion North Africa Egypt
c. 1520 BCE	Thutmose I extends Egyptian control as far up the Nile as Abu Hamad Go to Thutmose I in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa Egypt
c. 1500 BCE	A copper trumpet is in use in Egypt, forerunner of the brass instruments of the orchestra Go to copper in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Performing arts Music North Africa Egypt The Jews adopt a long-established Egyptian ritual - the circumcision of boys Go to Circumcision in Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion Judaism Social and domestic North Africa Egypt Society The temples of Karnak and Luxor, in ancient Thebes, introduce the massive stone architecture of column and lintel Go to Thebes, Egypt in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture North Africa Egypt The gods Amen and Re are merged at Thebes as Amen-Re, the most important deity in the Egyptian pantheon Go to Amen in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion North Africa Egypt
c. 1490 BCE	Hatshepsut takes power in Egypt, and is unusual in being a female pharaoh Go to Hatshepsut (c. 1540–c. 1481 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
c. 1450 BCE	Rich Egyptian households have the latest luxury items, small bottles of coloured glass to hold cosmetics Go to glass in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Decorative arts Social and domestic North Africa Egypt Society
c. 1400 BCE	The clepsydra, or water clock, is developed in Egypt Go to cle'psydra in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Technology Inventions and discoveries North Africa Egypt
c. 1380 BCE	The pharaoh Amenhotep III commissions the great temple to Amen-Re at Luxor Go to Amun (West Asia) in A Dictionary of World Mythology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture Religion North Africa Egypt
c. 1353 BCE	The Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep IV adopts a new deity, Aten, and changes his name to Akhenaten Go to Akhenaten in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion North Africa Egypt
c. 1350 BCE	The pharaoh Akhenaten creates a new capital city on the Nile at Tell el Amarna Go to Akhenaten in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
c. 1345 BCE	The Amarna letters, an invaluable collection of cuneiform tablets, are written at the court of the pharaoh Akhenaten Go to Tell el-Amarna Tablets in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE North Africa Egypt
c. 1340 BCE	One of the regular sitters to the court sculptor Thutmose is the pharaoh's wife, Nefertiti Go to Nefertiti (active 14th century bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Arts Sculpture North Africa Egypt
c. 1333 BCE	With the return to favour of the god Amen, the young Tutankhaten's name is changed to Tutankhamun Go to Tutankhamun (died c.1352 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Religion North Africa Egypt
c. 1324 BCE	The young Egyptian pharaoh, Tutankhamun, dies and is buried in a suitable tomb Go to Tutankhamun (died c.1352 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
1279 BCE	Ramses II, perhaps the greatest of Egypt's pharaohs, begins a reign of sixty-six years Go to Ramses II in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
c. 1275 BCE	An indecisive battle between the Hittites and the Egyptians, at Kadesh, stabilizes the frontier between the two empires Go to Kadesh, battle of (1300 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE War Battles North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria
c. 1250 BCE	Ramses II creates a spectacular temple in his own honour at Abu Simbel Go to Ramses II in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Architecture North Africa Egypt
c. 1200 BCE	Mysterious raiders from the sea cause chaos throughout the eastern Mediterranean, from Greece to Palestine and Egypt Go to Sea Peoples in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3100-1000 BCE Migration North Africa Asia West Asia Europe Society
c. 950 BCE	Libyans in the Egyptian army take control of the nation and rule as pharaohs Go to pharaoh in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
c. 814 BCE	The traditional date of the founding of Carthage (supposedly by the mythical queen Dido, but in practice by Phoenicians) Go to Carthage in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Conquest and colonization The Phoenicians North Africa
c. 800 BCE	The earliest surviving sundial is in use in Egypt Go to sundial in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Technology Inventions and discoveries North Africa Egypt
c. 719 BCE	The king of Cush, or Nubia, conquers down the Nile to the sea, establishing the Cushite dynasty Go to Nubians in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
c. 700 BCE	Egyptian scribes develop an abbreviated version of hieroglyphs for everyday use, in the script known as demotic ('for the people') Go to hieroglyphs in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE North Africa Egypt
663 BCE	The Egyptian city of Memphis falls to an Assyrian army, soon to be followed by Thebes Go to Ashurbanipal in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Assyria and Babylon Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa Egypt Lebanon and Syria
612 BCE	The Babylonians defeat an Egyptian army at Carchemish, but do not press on into Egypt Go to Nebuchadnezzar in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE Assyria and Babylon War Battles North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Turkey
c. 600 BCE	Isis, who is able to restore her husband Osiris after he has been chopped into pieces, becomes one of the most popular deities in Egypt Go to Isis in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE 6th century BCE Religion North Africa Egypt Phoenicians sail round the Cape of Good Hope and bring back the surprising news that the sun was seen to the north of them Go to Phoenicians in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1000-600 BCE 6th century BCE Exploration The Phoenicians South Africa South Africa (republic) Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria Society
c. 550 BCE	Larache is founded as a Carthaginian colony on the Atlantic coast of Africa Go to Larache (Morocco) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa
525 BCE	The Persians defeat an Egyptian army at Pelusium and then capture Memphis Go to Pelusium in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa Egypt
c. 515 BCE	The Persian emperor Darius I constructs a canal linking the Nile to the Red Sea Go to Darius I (c.550–486 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE Canals Technology Engineering North Africa Egypt Society
c. 500 BCE	The rulers of Aksum, the first Ethiopian kingdom, claim descent from Solomon and the Queen of Sheba Go to Aksum in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty East Africa Ethiopia Nok terracotta figures, found in modern Nigeria, stand at the beginning of the rich tradition of African sculpture Go to Nok in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century BCE 5th century BCE Arts Decorative arts Sculpture West Africa
460 BCE	Forces of the Delian League assist the Egyptians in a successful revolt against their Persian rulers Go to Delian League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars Politics Protest and rebellion War North Africa Egypt Wars and Revolutions
454 BCE	The Greeks suffer a major reverse when their fleet is trapped on the Nile and destroyed by the Persians Go to Greek-Persian wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Greco-Persian Wars War North Africa Egypt Wars and Revolutions
c. 450 BCE	The Greek historian Herodotus visits Egypt and provides, among many other details, an account of the process of mummification Go to Herodotus (c. 490–c. 425 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Religion North Africa Egypt
409 BCE	A Carthaginian army lands near Marsala to begin the long involvement of Carthage in Sicily Go to Sicily in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Sicily North Africa Europe Greece Italy
332 BCE	While in Egypt, Alexander founds Alexandria – the best known of the many towns he establishes to spread Greek culture Go to Alexandria in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Alexandria North Africa Egypt Greece
from 323 BCE	The spread of Greek rule by Alexander introduces the Hellenistic age, which will last for three centuries Go to Hellenistic Age (323–30 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Central Africa North Africa Egypt Asia Central Asia West Asia Greece
323 BCE	In the carve up of Alexander the Great's empire, Ptolemy wins Egypt and founds the Ptolemaic dynasty – with himself as the pharaoh Ptolemy I Go to Ptolemy in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
322 BCE	Alexander's corpse, hijacked by Ptolemy, becomes a sacred relic in Alexandria Go to Ptolemy in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Alexandria North Africa Egypt
c. 320 BCE	Ptolemy begins to transform Alexandria into a centre of Greek culture, founding his famous 'museum' and library Go to Alexandrian Library in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization Alexandria North Africa Egypt
c. 300 BCE	Euclid, teaching at the museum in Alexandria, writes what becomes Europe's standard textbook on geometry Go to Mafia [Crime] in The Oxford Dictionary of Reference and Allusion (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE Science Alexandria North Africa Egypt
c. 280 BCE	The Jewish community of Alexandria coins the word diaspora for Jews living far from Israel Go to diaspora in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Religion Judaism Alexandria North Africa Egypt The Alexandrian school of medicine develops an alarming form of clinical anatomy – human vivisection Go to Herophilus in The Oxford Companion to Medicine (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Science Medicine Alexandria North Africa Egypt A great lighthouse, subsequently one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is built on the island of Pharos, off Alexandria Go to Alexandria, Egypt in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Seven Wonders of the World Architecture Alexandria North Africa Egypt The Jews of Alexandria commission the Greek translation of the Old Testament which becomes known as the Septuagint See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Religion Judaism Alexandria North Africa Egypt
264 BCE	A clash in Sicily, between Rome and Carthage, leads to the First Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Rome Sicily North Africa Europe Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
c. 260 BCE	The 500,000 scrolls in the library at Alexandria are listed in a catalogue, which itself runs to 120 scrolls Go to Alexandrian Library in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Alexandria North Africa Egypt A Carthaginian quinquereme, captured by the Romans, is used as the model for the first Roman fleet - constructed in two months Go to quinquereme in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War North Africa Europe Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
c. 250 BCE	The organ, using a mechanical device to pump air through a set of musical pipes, is invented in Alexandria by Ctesibius Go to Ctesi'bius in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Performing arts Music Alexandria North Africa Egypt The first alchemists, working in Alexandria, are also the world's first experimental chemists Go to alchemy in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Science Chemistry Alexandria North Africa Egypt
241 BCE	A Roman naval victory at Trapani, off the northwest tip of Sicily, completes the blockade of the Carthaginians and ends the First Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles Sicily North Africa Europe Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
239 BCE	Ptolemy III issues the Decree of Canopus, the earliest known in the Ptolemaic series of public decrees inscribed in stone in two languages and three scripts Go to Berenice (3) II in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE North Africa Egypt
218 BCE	Hannibal crosses the Alps with his elephants, beginning the Second Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War North Africa Europe Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
202 BCE	Hannibal suffers his first decisive defeat by a Roman army, at an unidentified site in north Africa called Zama Go to Zama, battle of in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century BCE Punic Wars War Battles North Africa Greece Wars and Revolutions
196 BCE	The text of the Rosetta stone is chiselled into a black basalt slab in the three scripts hieroglyphic Egyptian, demotic Egyptian, and Greek Go to Rosetta Stone in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE North Africa Egypt
149 BCE	Rome picks a quarrel with Carthage to begin the Third Punic War Go to Punic wars in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Punic Wars War North Africa Europe Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
146 BCE	Carthage is destroyed by the Romans at the end of the Third Punic War Go to Carthage in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century BCE Punic Wars War North Africa Europe Greece Italy Wars and Revolutions
80 BCE	The 26-year-old Pompey conducts such a successful campaign in Africa that his soldiers hail him as Pompey the Great Go to Pompey ‘the Great’ (106–48 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa
69 BCE	Cleopatra, destined to become the last ruling pharaoh as Cleopatra VII, is born in Egypt – the daughter of Ptolemy XII Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt
51 BCE	Ptolemy XII dies, leaving Egypt to his young son, now Ptolemy XIII, and to his older daughter Cleopatra Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt In the Ptolemaic tradition, Cleopatra marries her brother Ptolemy XIII and at the age of eighteen is joint ruler of Egypt Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
48 BCE	Civil war breaks out in Egypt between Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra, each scheming to become sole ruler Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Pompey, seeking in Egypt refuge from Caesar, is first welcomed and then murdered by the faction of Ptolemy XIII Go to Pompey (106–48 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Caesar, reaching Egypt, is not pleased when sent by Ptolemy XIII the gift of Pompey's severed head, already embalmed Go to Caesar, Julius (100–44 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Julius Caesar, now fifty-two, meets the 21-year-old Cleopatra in Alexandria and they become lovers Go to Caesar, Julius (100–44 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Alexandria North Africa Egypt
47 BCE	The combined forces of Caesar and Cleopatra defeat Ptolemy XIII in a battle fought in the Nile delta Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Ptolemy XIII is either killed or accidentally drowns while attempting to escape across the Nile Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Cleopatra acquires a new co-ruler and husband in the form of another young brother, now Ptolemy XIV Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Julius Caesar leaves Alexandria to travel with his army by the land route back to Italy, through Turkey Go to Caesar, Julius (100–44 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Alexandria Egypt
46 BCE	A town is founded by Julius Caesar on the ruined site of Carthage, and eventually flourishes as Colonia Julia Carthago Go to Carthage (Tunisia, USA) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa
44 BCE	Cleopatra appoints Caesarion, now aged three, her co-ruler and heir Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Cleopatra's brother and co-ruler, Ptolemy XIV, dies – probably at her command Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt
41 BCE	Cleopatra persuades Mark Antony to execute her sister Arsinoe, thus removing her last potential rival in the Egyptian royal family Go to Cleopatra VII (69–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Mark Antony spends the winter with Cleopatra in Alexandria Go to Cleopatra VII (69–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Alexandria Egypt
40 BCE	Cleopatra gives birth to twins and calls them Alexander and Cleopatra Go to Cleopatra VII (69–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt
36 BCE	Cleopatra gives birth to another son of Mark Antony's and calls him Ptolemy Philadelphus Go to Cleopatra VII (69–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt
34 BCE	In a spectacular ceremony known as the Donations of Alexandria, Mark Antony distributes the eastern Roman territories between Cleopatra, her eldest son (Caesarion) and his own three children Go to Mark Antony (83–30 bc) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Alexandria Egypt
30 BCE	Octavian arrives in Egypt with an army, and holds Cleopatra a prisoner in her palace in Alexandria Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Alexandria Egypt Hearing that Cleopatra is dead (false news, as it turns out), Mark Antony commits suicide in Alexandria Go to Antony, Mark (82–30 bc) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Alexandria Egypt Cleopatra commits suicide, applying a poisonous asp to her breast, Go to Cleopa'tra VII (69–30 bc) in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Dynasties and royalty Alexandria North Africa Egypt The Egyptians declare Caesarion to be their pharaoh, but it is not long before he is executed by Octavian - bringing to an end the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt Go to Ptolemies in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Egypt Octavian annexes Egypt as a Roman territory and takes back to Rome the vast treasures of the Egyptian pharaohs Go to Augustus (63 bc–ad 14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Rome Egypt With the annexation of Egypt, the entire Mediterranean falls under Roman control Go to Augustus (63 bc–ad 14) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century BCE Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa Egypt
c. 50	A western adaptation of the Persian cult of Mithras, evolving probably in Anatolia, is spread through the empire by the Roman army Go to Mithras in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Religion North Africa Asia West Asia Europe Empires
69	Vespasian, proclaimed emperor by his troops in Alexandria, is the survivor among this year's four emperors Go to Vespasian (ad 9–79) in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Roman empire Politics Dynasties and royalty Alexandria North Africa Egypt Europe Italy Empires
c. 75	Hero, a Greek scientist in Alexandria, devises various forms of steam engine Go to Hero of Alexandria (c.ad 62) in A Dictionary of Scientists (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Steam Technology Engineering Alexandria North Africa Egypt The dioptra, developed by Hero of Alexandria for surveying land, is an early form of theodolite Go to Hero of Alexandria (c.ad 62) in A Dictionary of Scientists (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE Technology Inventions and discoveries Alexandria North Africa Egypt
c. 100	A cult develops in Rome of the Egyptian goddess Isis, credited with restoring to life her husband, Osiris, after he has been hacked to pieces Go to Isis in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Roman empire Religion Rome North Africa Egypt Europe Italy Empires Realistic portraits, done in hot wax and preserved in coffins at Fayyum, vividly depict inhabitants of Roman Egypt Go to Fayyūm Portraits in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Roman empire Arts Painting North Africa Egypt Empires The network of Roman roads stretches eventually from England to Egypt Go to Roman roads in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1st century CE 2nd century Technology Engineering North Africa Asia West Asia Europe
c. 150	Ptolemy writes in Alexandria an encyclopedic account of Greek scientific theory in cosmology, astronomy and geography Go to Ptolemy (130–75) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 2nd century Greek science Science Alexandria North Africa Egypt
c. 244	Plotinus, moving from Alexandria to Rome, teaches the influential philosophy later known as Neo-Platonism Go to Plotinus (205–270) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Latin literature Literature Philosophy Alexandria North Africa Egypt Europe Italy
c. 250	Roman socks, surviving in dry Egyptian tombs, are the earliest known examples of knitting Go to knitting in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Roman empire Technology Inventions and discoveries North Africa Egypt Empires
258	Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, is one of many Christians martyred for refusing to sacrifice to the Roman gods Go to Cyprian (c.ad 200–58) in Who's Who in the Classical World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century Roman empire Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity North Africa Empires
c. 300	St Anthony, one of the early Christian hermits in the Egyptian desert, is tempted by terrifying hallucinations Go to Antony, St, of Egypt (251?–356) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century 4th century Religion Christianity North Africa Egypt The Jews of the Diaspora have by now spread through much of the Roman empire, where they are treated with tolerance Go to Dispersion, Diaspora in The Oxford Guide to People and Places of the Bible (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 3rd century 4th century Roman empire Religion Judaism Migration North Africa Asia West Asia Europe Society Empires
303	The emperor Diocletian initiates a sustained persecution of Christians in the Roman empire Go to Diocletian (284–305) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Roman empire Politics Persecution and repression Religion Christianity North Africa Asia West Asia Europe Empires
c. 320	Pachomius organizes in Egypt the first community of Christian monks, at Dandara on the Nile Go to Pachomius (d. 346) in The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (5 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Religion Christianity Monasticism North Africa Egypt
c. 350	The Cushite dynasty fades away in Nubia, after lasting for 1000 years or more Go to Nubians in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt Frumentius, brought to Ethiopia as a slave, becomes the kingdom's first Christian bishop Go to Frumentius, St (c.300–c.380) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Religion Christianity East Africa Ethiopia
367	A document is distributed by the bishop of Alexandria, formally establishing the contents of the New Testament Go to New Testament in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Religion Christianity Alexandria North Africa Egypt
c. 380	The Codex Sinaiticus, the earliest surviving manuscript of the complete New Testament, is copied out - probably in Egypt Go to Codex Sinaiticus (‘א’) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century Religion Christianity North Africa Egypt
c. 400	St Augustine reveals that as a young man, studying and teaching in Carthage, he often prayed for 'chastity and continence, but not yet' Go to Augustine of Hippo, St (354–430) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 4th century 5th century Religion Christianity North Africa
c. 413	Prompted by the fall of Rome to the Visigoths, St Augustine undertakes a great work of Christian philosophy, the City of God Go to City of God in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Literature Philosophy Religion Christianity Rome North Africa Empires
439	Gaiseric captures Carthage and makes it his base for Vandal raids across the Mediterranean Go to Gaiseric (428) in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 5th century Roman empire Migration War North Africa Society Empires
533	The Byzantine general Belisarius recovers Carthage from the Vandals Go to Vandal in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa Empires
c. 535	Belisarius, conquering the Vandals in north Africa, pioneers the strategic concept of the castle Go to Arno of Reichersberg (c.1100–1175) in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Architecture War North Africa
c. 543	Christianity reaches the kingdom of Dongola, in present-day Sudan Go to Nubia, Christianity in in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 6th century Religion Christianity East Africa
642	The unopposed capture of Alexandria by the Arabs completes the Muslim conquest of Egypt Go to Alexandria in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam Alexandria Muslim empires North Africa Egypt Empires
643	The Coptic Christians of Egypt become isolated after the Muslim conquest Go to Copt in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Islam North Africa Egypt
670	The Arabs establish a garrison town at Kairouan, as a base for the conquest of northwest Africa Go to Corvey in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam Muslim empires North Africa Empires With the entire middle east under their control, the Arabs make Damascus the capital of the Umayyad caliphate Go to Damascus in A Dictionary of the Bible (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Caliphs Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Islam Muslim empires North Africa Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria Empires
698	Carthage is captured from the Byzantines by the Arabs and is finally destroyed, though Tunis will later rise nearby Go to Carthage in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century Byzantine empire Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa Empires
c. 700	The African slave trade through the Sahara is so extensive that a new town, Zawila, is established as a trading station Go to slavery in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 7th century 8th century Slavery North Africa Society The ancient kingdom of Ghana is the first to be established at the southern end of the Saharan trade routes See this event in other timelines: 7th century 8th century Politics West Africa
711	Muslim Arabs cross from north Africa into Spain and drive the Visigoths from Toledo Go to Toledo in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam Muslim empires North Africa Europe Spain Empires
c. 780	Islam reaches Shanga, off the east coast of Africa, with the building of a tiny wooden mosque Go to Kenya in The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 8th century Religion Islam East Africa
828	The Venetians, acquiring from Alexandria some bones believed to be those of St Mark, build St Mark's to house the valuable relic Go to Mark, St in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Religion Christianity Alexandria Venice North Africa Egypt Europe Italy
862	During refurbishment of the mosque at Kairouan, in north Africa, a high fluted dome is added Go to Kairouan, Great Mosque of in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Architecture North Africa
c. 870	Ahmad ibn Tulun, a Mameluke, seizes power in Egypt - establishing his own Tulunid dynasty Go to Ibn Tulun, Ahmad (884) in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 9th century Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
969	The Fatimids establish a new capital city on the Nile, calling it Al Kahira ('the victorious'), which becomes reduced to Cairo Go to Fāṭimids in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century Politics North Africa Egypt
c. 1000	A Muslim dynasty is established at Gao, on the Niger Go to Gao (Mali) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam West Africa Germany The salt mines of the Sahara provide a staple commodity in the African caravan trade Go to Salt Trade in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century 11th century Commerce and industry Central Africa East Africa North Africa Society A trading centre at Mapungubwe, on the Limpopo, evolves into a state ruled by a king in a zimbabwe Go to Limpopo (Botswana-Mozambique-South Africa-Zimbabwe) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 10th century 11th century Politics South Africa
c. 1050	Islam reaches Kanem-Bornu, a joint kingdom encompassing the eastern and western shores of Lake Chad Go to Kanem-Bornu in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam Central Africa East Africa A Muslim dynasty is established at Kilwa, on the east African coast Go to Kilwa in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Islam East Africa Ife emerges as a powerful kingdom in the equatorial forest of the lower Niger Go to Ife (Osun/Nigeria) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Dynasties and royalty West Africa Germany
1062	Berber tribesmen, the Almoravids, establish a base at Marrakech from which they conquer northwest Africa and move into Spain Go to Almoravids (1046–1157) in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa
c. 1100	Greek texts, translated by Arabic scholars in Baghdad, gradually make their way through the Muslim world to Christian Europe Go to Greek in A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology 1450–2000 (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 11th century 12th century Mesopotamia North Africa Asia West Asia Iraq
1147	Rival Berber tribesmen, the Almohads, evict the Almoravids from Marrakech and soon conquer the whole north African coast Go to Almohads (1130–1269) in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Politics Conquest and colonization North Africa
1171	Saladin deposes the Fatimid caliph and brings Egypt back to orthodoxy, acknowledging the rule of the Sunni caliph in Baghdad Go to Saladin (1138–93) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Caliphs Politics Dynasties and royalty Religion Islam North Africa Egypt
c. 1180	In Cairo the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides writes, in Arabic, a much translated text with the endearing title Guide to the Perplexed Go to Maimonides, Moses (1135–1204) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century Literature Philosophy Judaism North Africa Egypt
c. 1200	Terracotta heads and figures are buried in graves in the region of Djenné in modern Mali Go to terracotta in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 12th century 13th century Arts Decorative arts Religion West Africa
1219	St Francis of Assisi joins a crusading army in Egypt and attempts to convert the sultan Melek-el-Kamel and his followers to Christianity Go to Francis Of Assisi, St (1181/2–1226) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Crusades 13th century Religion Christianity Monasticism North Africa Egypt Wars and Revolutions
c. 1240	A warlord, Sundiata, conquers Ghana and establishes the kingdom of Mali Go to Sundiata Keita (1210?–1260?) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty West Africa
c. 1250	The kingdom of Great Zimbabwe displaces Mapungubwe as the dominant Shona power in this region of southern Africa Go to Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics South Africa The Yoruba people of Ife create extraordinary sculptures in brass Go to Ife (Osun/Nigeria) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Arts Sculpture West Africa The last sultan of Saladin's dynasty is murdered by slaves in the palace guard, and Mameluke rule is reintroduced in Egypt Go to Saladin (1138–93) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt
1269	The Marinids, a Berber tribe, take Marrakech and bring to an end Almohad rule in Morocco Go to Almohad in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Conquest and colonization Migration North Africa Society
c. 1270	The Assassins are systematically destroyed by Baybars, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt Go to Baybars I in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 13th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia
1315	Islam replaces Christianity as the religion of the kings of Dongola, in present-day Sudan Go to Nubia, Christianity in in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Religion Christianity Islam East Africa
1324	Mansa Musa, sultan of the gold-rich African state of Mali, is so lavish in Cairo (on his way to Mecca) that the value of Egyptian gold slumps Go to Mansa Musa (1307–37) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Commerce and industry North Africa Egypt Society
1325	Ibn Batutah leaves his home in Morocco to go on pilgrimage to Mecca, and continues travelling for 24 years Go to Mecca in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Travel and transport North Africa Society
1329	A friar, who has failed to find Prester John in the east, publishes a book proving that the fabulous king lives in Ethiopia Go to Prester John in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 14th century Religion East Africa Ethiopia
1415	A Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator, becomes fascinated by exploration down the coast of Africa and commissions successive voyages Go to Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Exploration European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire Europe Portugal Society Empires
c. 1420	The Portuguese, discovering the lush and uninhabited island of Madeira, send colonists to settle it Go to Madeira in The Oxford Companion to Architecture (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire Europe Portugal Empires
c. 1427	A Portuguese captain, sailing for Henry the Navigator, chances upon the Azores Go to Azores in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Portugal Empires
1439	Portuguese settlers are sent to the unoccupied islands of the Azores Go to Azores in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Portugal Empires
1446	Portugal claims ownership of the region of Guinea, subsequently the centre of their slave trade on the west African coast Go to slave trade, African in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire West Africa Europe Society Empires
c. 1450	A warrior king, Ewuare, establishes the forest kingdom of Benin Go to Benin, Kingdom of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics West Africa Coffee, derived from wild plants in Ethiopia, is cultivated in Arabia Go to coffee in A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Social and domestic East Africa Ethiopia Asia West Asia Society The caravel, a sailing ship developed in the Mediterranean and used down the west coast of Africa, is adapted by the Portuguese for Atlantic use Go to caravel in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Travel and transport European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire Europe Portugal Society Empires
1456	A Portuguese navigator discovers some of the Cape Verde islands, tropical and at that time uninhabited Go to Cape Verde in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Portugal Empires
1462	Portuguese settlers arrive to found Cidade Velha, on the Cape Verde island of Santiago Go to Cape Verde in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Portugal Empires
1466	The Portuguese settlers on the Cape Verde islands are granted a monopoly on the new slave trade Go to Cape Verde in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire West Africa Europe Society Empires
c. 1480	The Maravi Confederacy is formed by Bantu tribes and soon wins control over a large region between Lake Nyasa and the Zambezi Go to Bantu in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics South Africa An increase in trade through the central Sahara benefits the Songhay, with their capital at Gao, at the expense of Mali Go to Songhay in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Commerce and industry West Africa Society
1483	The Portuguese establish a further presence on the west coast of Africa, at the mouth of the Congo river Go to Congo in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1488	Bartolomeu Dias, sailing for the king of Portugal, becomes the first European navigator to round the Cape of Good Hope Go to Cape of Good Hope in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Exploration European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Society Empires
1492	A French privateer off the west coast of Ghana is the first to plunder a Portuguese vessel carrying home African gold Go to privateers in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century Commerce and industry West Africa Society
c. 1500	The people of Benin begin a lasting tradition of sculpture in brass, melted down from objects brought by traders Go to Benin, Kingdom of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century 16th century Arts Sculpture West Africa The Portuguese establish trading posts in east Africa, on the coast of Mozambique Go to Mozambique in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 15th century 16th century Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire South Africa Europe Society Empires
1503	The Portuguese set up a trading post on the east African island of Zanzibar Go to Zanzibar in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire East Africa Europe Society Empires
1517	The Ottoman sultan, Selim I, captures Cairo and ends Mameluke rule in the middle east Go to Selim I (c. 1470–1520) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Empires From Bosnia to Egypt and Arabia, the Ottoman Turks now rule the largest Muslim empire since the early caliphate Go to Ottoman empire in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century Caliphs Politics Dynasties and royalty Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire North Africa Asia West Asia Europe Empires
1530	Ahmad ibn Ibrahim leads Muslim Somalis in a holy war against Christian Ethiopia, destroying churches and shrines Go to Ethiopia in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century Politics Conquest and colonization Religion Christianity Islam East Africa Ethiopia
c. 1550	Africans, bought in the Portuguese trading posts of west Africa, are shipped across the Atlantic as slaves Go to slave trade, African in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire West Africa Europe Society Empires Latin America
c. 1570	The Ashanti establish a powerful kingdom in present-day Ghana, with their capital at Kumasi Go to Ashanti in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century Politics West Africa
1574	The Ottoman empire finally asserts control over the north African coast, in the footsteps of Muslim pirates Go to Ottoman Empire in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century Politics Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire North Africa Empires
c. 1600	The Yoruba develop an extensive empire centred on Oyo in southern Nigeria Go to Yoruba in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 16th century 17th century Politics West Africa
1609	A law is passed expelling the Moriscos from Spain, with the result that some 300,000 are shipped to north Africa Go to Moriscos in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 17th century Politics North Africa Europe Spain
c. 1625	Three brothers among the Dahomey people establish a long-lasting kingdom in the Bight of Benin Go to Dahomey in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 17th century Politics Dynasties and royalty West Africa
1638	The French build a trading station on the estuary of the Senegal river in west Africa Go to Senegal River in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 17th century Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Society Empires
1652	Jan van Riebeeck establishes a Dutch settlement at the Cape of Good Hope Go to Riebeeck, Jan van (1610–77) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 17th century Politics Conquest and colonization Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1657	The Dutch in South Africa purchase slaves to do domestic and agricultural work Go to Dutch East India Company in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 17th century Politics Conquest and colonization Slavery Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Society Empires
1661	The British establish Fort James on an island in the Gambia river Go to Gambia River in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 17th century Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry British empire European empires from 1415 West Africa Europe Society Empires
1698	A fleet from Oman evicts the Portuguese from Mombasa and Zanzibar Go to Mombasa in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 17th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire East Africa Europe Empires
c. 1770	The triangular trade, controlled from Liverpool, ships millions of Africans across the Atlantic as slaves Go to slave trade, African in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Britain 1750-1900 Migration Slavery Great Britain - from 1707 British Isles European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Society Empires Britain Latin America North America
c. 1775	Dutch nomads, pressing far north from Cape Town, become known as the Trekboers Go to Afrikaner in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Exploration Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Society Empires
1787	A British ship lands a party of freed slaves as the first modern settlers in Sierra Leone, on the west coast of Africa Go to Sierra Leone in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Migration Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Society Empires
c. 1795	Dutch Boers begin calling themselves Afrikaners, to emphasize that Africa is their native land Go to Afrikaner in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Social and domestic Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Society Empires Mungo Park sets off on his first expedition to explore the Niger on behalf of the African Association Go to Park, Mungo (1771–1806) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Exploration British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Society Empires With the Dutch entering the war on the side of the French, Britain seizes their valuable Cape colony in South Africa Go to Cape Colony in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Wars and Revolutions
1798	Napoleon, with distinguished scientists in his fleet, sails to invade Egypt Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Politics Conquest and colonization War North Africa Europe Wars and Revolutions Napoleon's campaign in Egypt begins well with the Battle of the Pyramids, a victory over an Egyptian army Go to Pyramids, Battle of the (21 July 1798) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic era War Battles North Africa Egypt Wars and Revolutions Disaster strikes the French in Egypt when Nelson finds their fleet in Aboukir Bay and destroys it in the Battle of the Nile Go to Nile, battle of the (1798) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolutionary Wars War Battles North Africa Egypt Wars and Revolutions
1799	Napoleon's soldiers discover a black basalt slab, the Rosetta Stone, near the village of Rashid in Egypt Go to Rosetta stone in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century Napoleonic era Science North Africa Egypt Napoleon abandons his army in Egypt and returns hastily to Paris at a time of great political opportunity Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 18th century French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War North Africa Egypt Europe France Wars and Revolutions
1802	The Treaty of Amiens restores the Cape of Good Hope to the Netherlands Go to Amiens, treaty of (1802) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1803	The USS Philadelphia is captured, with its 300 crew, in the first Barbary War between the US and north African pirate states Go to Tripolitan War (1800–15) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War North Africa
1806	The British recapture the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch Go to Cape of Good Hope in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Wars and Revolutions
1808	The British government uses Freetown, in Sierra Leone, as a base in the fight against the slave trade Go to Freetown (Antigua, The Bahamas, Canada, Jamaica, Sierra Leone, USA) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Society Empires
1809	The British impose the so-called Hottentot Code, protecting Africans at the Cape but also tying them to employers' farms Go to Hottentot in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires The Fulani establish a capital at Sokoto, from which they dominate the Hausa kingdoms of northern Nigeria Go to Fulani empire of Sokoto in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization West Africa Germany
1811	All but one of 300 Mameluke guests are assassinated during an entertainment by Muhammad Ali in Cairo Go to Mameluke in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Terrorism and assassination North Africa Egypt
1815	The congress of Vienna leaves the Cape of Good Hope in British hands Go to Vienna, Congress of (1814–15) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire Dutch empire European empires from 1415 South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Wars and Revolutions Napoleon is sent to a more secure place of exile, the rocky Atlantic island of St Helena Go to St Helena in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Napoleonic Wars 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty War South Africa Wars and Revolutions
1816	Shaka wins control of the Zulu and begins to build them into a formidable military machine Go to Shaka (1787–1828) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty South Africa South Africa (republic) The British establish Bathurst (now Banjul) at the mouth of the Gambia as a base against the slave trade Go to Banjul (The Gambia) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Society Empires
1820	The first big influx of British settlers, numbering some 5000, arrives at Cape Town in South Africa Go to Cape of Good Hope in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1821	An Egyptian army makes its camp at Khartoum, subsequently the capital of an Egyptian province in the Sudan Go to Khartoum in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization East Africa Napoleon dies on St Helena, after six years of captivity Go to Napoleon I (1769–1821) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Napoleonic era Politics Dynasties and royalty South Africa The American Colonization Society buys the area later known as Liberia to settle freed slaves Go to American Colonization Society in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Migration Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Society Empires
1822	Egyptian hieroglyphs are deciphered by French Egyptologist Jean François Champollion, using the Rosetta stone Go to Champollion, Jean-François in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Science North Africa Egypt Europe France Mzilikazi, after a quarrel with Shaka, leads the Ndebele people to new territories west of Natal Go to Mzilikazi (c. 1796–1868) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Migration South Africa South Africa (republic) Society The first shipload of freed slaves reaches Cape Mesurado (in the region soon called Liberia) from the USA Go to Liberia (and Costa Rica) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Migration Slavery European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Society Empires
1827	The Turkish governor of Algiers, flicking at the French consul with his fly whisk, finds that he has provoked a French blockade and eventually invasion Go to Algeria in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization Turks European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires
1828	Shaka is murdered by his half-brother Dingaan, who becomes leader of the Zulu in his place Go to Dingaan (1843) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty South Africa South Africa (republic)
1830	Richard Lander and his brother John explore the lower reaches of the Niger, proving that the great river is navigable Go to Lander, Richard Lemon (1804–34) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Exploration British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Society Empires A French army invades Algeria, beginning the process which brings the region within the French empire Go to Algeria in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires
1832	The paddle steamer Alburkah becomes the first ocean-going iron ship, completing the journey from England to the Niger Go to paddle steamer noun in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Steam Exploration Technology Engineering European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Society Empires French painter Eugène Delacroix begins a five-month visit to north Africa, with profound effects on his future art Go to Delacroix, Eugène (1798–1863) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Arts Painting North Africa
c. 1835	English artist Edward Lear begins a series of travels, sketching around the Mediterranean and in the Middle East Go to Lear, Edward (1812–88) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Britain 1750-1900 Arts Painting British painting British art Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles North Africa Asia West Asia Europe Britain
1836	Hendrik Potgieter sets off with some 200 Boers and their cattle at the start of the Great Trek to the north Go to Great Trek (1835–40) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires The Portuguese ban the shipping of slaves from the coast of Angola Go to slave trade, African in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Slavery Dutch empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire South Africa Europe Portugal Society Empires Hendrik Potgieter and the Boers, protected by a laager at Vegkop, hold off an attack by a large force of Ndebele tribesmen Go to Great Trek (1835–40) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1837	After a victory at Vegkop, Boers massacre the inhabitants of a dozen Ndebele villages in secret dawn raids Go to Great Trek (1835–40) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Piet Retief emerges as the new leader of the Great Trek, replacing Potgieter Go to Great Trek (1835–40) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Potgieter defeats the Ndebele at the Marico river and drives them north of the Limpopo Go to Great Trek, the in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Piet Retief reaches a provisional agreement with Dingaan, the Zulu leader, for a Boer settlement in southern Natal Go to Dingaan (1843) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Zanzibar becomes the main place of residence of the sultan of Oman Go to Zanzibar (Tanzania) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty East Africa Asia West Asia
1838	During a ceremony to celebrate their treaty with Dingaan, Piet Retief and his Boer companions are overpowered and killed Go to Dingaan (1843) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Dingaan's warriors massacre Boer families in a series of dawn raids near the Bloukrans river Go to Dingaan (1843) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires The river Ncome becomes known as the Blood River after thousands of Zulu die attacking Andries Pretorius and the Boers Go to Blood River, Battle of (16 December 1838) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1839	Abd-el-Kader proclaims a holy war against the French in Algeria and begins a military campaign that will last for eight years Go to Abd al-Qadir (1883) in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires Andries Pretorius sets up the Boer republic of Natalia, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg Go to Pretorius, Andries (1799–1853) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1840	With Boer help, Mpande removes his brother Dingaan from the Zulu throne and takes his place Go to Dingaan (1843) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty South Africa South Africa (republic) Muhammad Ali, officially viceroy for the Turkish sultan, establishes his own ruling dynasty on the throne of Egypt Go to Muhammad Ali (1769–1849) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty Turks Muslim empires Ottoman empire North Africa Egypt Empires
c. 1841	Britain sends four naval ships up the river Niger to make anti-slavery treaties with local kings Go to Buxton, Thomas Fowell (1786–1845) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Slavery British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Society Empires
1843	The British take control of the existing Boer republic and proclaim Natal a British protectorate Go to Natal in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1847	Pretorius leads the last Boer families out of Natal and over the Drakensberg to the high veld Go to Pretorius, Andries (1799–1853) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Liberia wins independence and international recognition as a republic Go to Liberia in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires
1848	Harry Smith annexes for Britain the land between the Orange and Vaal rivers, calling it the Orange River Sovereignty Go to Free State in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
c. 1850	The Scottish missionary David Livingstone is profoundly shocked by what he sees of the slave trade at the heart of Africa Go to Livingstone, David (1813–73) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Slavery Central Africa East Africa Society The British government buys the Danish fortresses on the Gold Coast, including Christiansborg castle in Accra Go to Ghana in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Denmark Empires
1853	David Livingstone makes a heroic six-month journey from the Zambezi river to the west coast of Africa Go to Livingstone, David (1813–73) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Exploration British empire South Africa Society Empires
1854	The Boers establish the Orange Free State as an independent republic, with its own custom-built constitution Go to Free State in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires William Baikie, on an expedition up the Niger, protects his men from malaria by administering quinine Go to quinine in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Science Medicine West Africa Germany Ferdinand de Lesseps is granted the concession to construct a canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea Go to Lesseps, Ferdinand Marie, Vicomte de (1805–94) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Canals Technology Engineering North Africa Egypt Society
1855	An Ethiopian baron usurps the throne and proclaims himself emperor, as Theodore II Go to Ethiopia in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty East Africa Ethiopia
1857	The Boers of the southern Transvaal declare independence as the South African Republic Go to South Africa, Republic of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1861	Lagos, on the coast of Nigeria, is annexed as a British colony when the royal family prove unable or unwilling to end the slave trade Go to Lagos in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization Slavery British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Society Empires
1862	Richard Burton, visiting Dahomey, provides reports of the kingdom's celebrated Amazons preparing for war Go to Burton, Sir Richard (1821–90) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Exploration War West Africa Society Speke and Grant find the Ripon Falls, over which the headwater of the Nile flows from Lake Tanganyika Go to Speke, John Hanning (1827–1864) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Exploration British empire East Africa Society Empires
1868	Britain annexes Basutoland (now Lesotho), the kingdom of the Sotho leader Moshoeshoe Go to Lesotho in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires
1869	Britain, France and Italy take joint control of the finances of a bankrupt Tunisia Go to imperialism in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires The proprietor of the New York Herald gives Henry Morton Stanley a very concise commission – 'Find Livingstone' Go to Livingstone, David (1813–73) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Exploration British empire South Africa Society Empires British explorer Samuel Baker annexes the southern Sudan, or Equatoria, on behalf of the khedive of Egypt Go to Baker, Sir Samuel White (1821–93) in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 East Africa Europe Empires Thousands of distinguished guests assemble at Port Said for the opening of the Suez Canal Go to Suez Canal in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Canals Social and domestic Technology Engineering North Africa Egypt Society
1871	The Afghan philosopher Jamal al-Din, moving to Cairo, urges drastic and violent measures against western influence Go to Afghani, Jamal al-Din al- (1897) in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Protest and rebellion North Africa Egypt 18-year-old English entrepreneur Cecil Rhodes, on a temporary visit to South Africa, arrives in the new diamond town of Kimberley Go to Rhodes, Cecil (1853–1902) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida, is commissioned for the Cairo opera house, part of the process of Egypt becoming westernized Go to Aida in A Dictionary of Opera Characters (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Performing arts Music Opera North Africa Egypt
1872	Cetshwayo becomes king of Zululand, on the death of his father Mpande Go to Cetchewayo, Chief (d. 1884) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty South Africa South Africa (republic)
1873	The British consul in Zanzibar persuades the sultan to end the island's notorious slave trade Go to Zanzibar in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Slavery East Africa Society
1874	The southern region of present-day Ghana becomes a British colony, to be known as the Gold Coast Go to Ghana in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires Stanley sets off from Bagamoyo, intending to resume the exploration of central Africa where Livingstone left off Go to Stanley, Sir Henry Morton (1841–1904) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Exploration British empire Central Africa East Africa Society Empires
1876	Stanley passes Nyangwe on the Lualaba, the furthest point down the Congo river system reached by Livingstone Go to Stanley, Sir Henry Morton (1841–1904) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Exploration British empire Central Africa East Africa Society Empires Scottish missionaries establish Blantyre (named after Livingstone's birthplace) as a centre from which to fight slavery Go to Malawi, Christianity in in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Slavery South Africa South Africa (republic) Society Leopold II hosts a conference in Brussels on the subject of opening up the African continent Go to Brussels Geographical Conference in The Oxford Companion to World Exploration (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Belgium Empires
1877	Britain annexes the Boer republic in the Transvaal Go to Transvaal in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Stanley completes his exploration of the Congo, reaching the Atlantic coast at Boma after a three-year journey Go to Stanley, Sir Henry Morton (1841–1904) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Exploration British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Society Empires
1878	Stanley agrees to work for Leopold II in opening up the Congo river to commerce Go to Leopold II (1835–1909) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Society Empires Britain
1879	The British find a pretext to march into the territory ruled by Cetshwayo, thus launching the Zulu War Go to Zulu War (1879) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Zulu tribesmen surprise and annihilate a British army encamped near Isandhlwana Go to Isandhlwana, Battle of (22 January 1879) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Immediately after Isandhlwana a tiny British garrison at Rorke's Drift fights off an overwhelming Zulu attack Go to Isandhlwana, Battle of (22 January 1879) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires George Goldie and British traders on the Niger form the United African Company (later the Royal Niger Company) to consolidate their interests Go to Concessionary Companies in Africa in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Commerce and industry British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Society Empires The British destruction of Cetshwayo's kraal at Ulundi ends the Zulu War Go to Ulundi, battle of (1879) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Cetshwayo is captured by the British and is exiled to 'Cape Town Go to Cetchewayo, Chief (d. 1884) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century South Africa South Africa (republic)
1880	French explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza forestalls Stanley in opening up the Congo, reaching Stanley Pool ahead of him Go to Brazza, Pierre Savorgnan de (1852–1905) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Society Empires
1881	The Boers inflict a convincing defeat on a British army at Majuba, in the Transvaal Go to Majuba Hill, battle of (1881) in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era War Battles British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires France invades Tunisia from Algeria, and in the Treaty of Bardo forces the bey of Tunis to accept the status of a French protectorate Go to Tunisia, French conquest of (1881–1911) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires Stanley finds Brazza's French tricolor already flying on the north bank of the Congo, on the site of what later becomes Brazzaville Go to Brazza, Pierre Savorgnan de (1852–1905) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Society Empires
1882	Stanley establishes a foothold for Leopold II on the southern bank of the Congo, at a site which he names Leopoldville (now Kinshasa) Go to Stanley, Sir Henry Morton (1841–1904) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Society Empires Anti-western riots in Alexandria result in many deaths and provoke a British invasion Go to Arabi Pasha (1839–1911) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization Alexandria British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Egypt Europe Empires
1883	The British reinstate Cetshwayo as Zulu king, but over a much smaller territory Go to Cetchewayo, Chief (d. 1884) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century South Africa South Africa (republic) French marines land at Tamatave in Madagascar to protect French interests and assert French control Go to French empire in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire South Africa Europe Empires Mohammed Ahmed, proclaiming himself the Mahdi, defeats three Egyptian armies in the Sudan Go to Mahdi in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire East Africa Empires
1884	Cetshwayo dies, after being expelled from his kingdom in an uprising led by Zibhebhu and supported by Boer mercenaries Go to Cetchewayo, Chief (d. 1884) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century South Africa South Africa (republic) General Gordon marches south to protect Khartoum from the advancing forces of the Mahdi Go to Gordon, Charles George (1833–85) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Bismarck launches the colonial scramble for Africa by suddenly annexing three territories for Germany (Togo, Cameroon and Angria Pequena) Go to Africa, partition of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Germany Empires The Boer republic in the Transvaal regains its independence from Britain Go to Kruger, Paul (1825–1904) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Gustav Nachtigal arrives in Togo and persuades local chiefs to accept the protection of the German emperor Go to German Second empire (1871–1918) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Empires Gustav Nachtigal, moving on to Cameroon, annexes this region too for the new German empire Go to German Second empire (1871–1918) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Empires Dinizulu, son of Cetshwayo, employs Boer mercenaries led by Louis Botha to drive his father's enemy, Zibhebhu, from the Zulu kingdom Go to Botha, Louis (1862–1919) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century South Africa South Africa (republic) Karl Peters hurries round east Africa persuading chiefs to accept the German emperor as their protector Go to Peters, Karl (1856–1918) in The Oxford Companion to World Exploration (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires British general Garnet Wolseley sails from London on a mission to rescue Gordon, trapped by the Mahdi in Khartoum Go to Gordon relief expedition (1884–5) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Bismarck invites the European powers to a West Africa Conference in Berlin Go to Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Germany Empires Spain begins to colonize the Western Sahara, subsequently known as the Spanish Sahara Go to Western Sahara in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Spanish empire North Africa Europe Empires Botha and his Boer followers are rewarded by Dinizulu with a large tract of land, in which they establish their own Boer republic Go to Botha, Louis (1862–1919) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century South Africa South Africa (republic)
1885	Bismarck grants Karl Peters a charter to rule a German protectorate in east Africa Go to Peters, Karl (1856–1918) in The Oxford Companion to World Exploration (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires Britain annexes Bechuanaland as a protectorate, to secure the route north from the Cape into central Africa Go to Botswana in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires Italian troops occupy Eritrea, a province of Ethiopia Go to Asmara, Eritrea in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Empires German warships arrive in Zanzibar harbour to persuade the sultan to cede territory to the Kaiser, William I Go to Zanzibar (Tanzania) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires
1886	Addis Ababa is founded, to become subsequently the capital of Ethiopia Go to Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics East Africa Ethiopia Germany and Britain define neighbouring spheres of interest in east Africa Go to Africa, partition of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires The German and British agreement in east Africa creates the present-day boundary between Tanzania and Kenya Go to Scramble for Africa in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires
1887	To put an end to the Boer republic in Zululand, the British annexe the Zulu kingdom Go to Zululand (KwaZulu-Natal/South Africa) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century South Africa South Africa (republic) A gathering of leaders from the British empire holds a colonial conference in London to coincide with Queen Victoria's jubilee Go to imperial conferences in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Politics Conquest and colonization Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Empires Britain
1888	The Ndebele chieftain, Lobengula, grants Rhodes mining rights in what is now Zimbabwe Go to British South Africa Company in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Society Empires The Imperial British East Africa Company is given a charter to administer Kenya and Uganda Go to Concessionary Companies in Africa in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1889	Cecil Rhodes forms the British South Africa Company to push British commerce and imperial control further north Go to British South Africa Company in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization Commerce and industry British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Society Empires Menelik II is crowned emperor in Ethiopia, bringing the crown back to the Solomon dynasty Go to Menelik II (1844–1913) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Dynasties and royalty East Africa Ethiopia France and Britain agree colonial boundaries for Senegal and Gambia in west Africa Go to Gambia, The in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires In the treaty of Uccialli, Menelik II cedes the Ethiopian province of Eritrea to Italy Go to Menelik II (1844–1913) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Empires
1890	Cecil Rhodes sends colonists to settle the newly won colony of Rhodesia Go to Rhodesia in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires Zanzibar, under its Arab sultan, is declared a British protectorate Go to Zanzibar in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1891	Germany takes direct control of German East Africa as a protectorate Go to Tanzania in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires Rhodes wins the right to administer the region from the Zambezi up to Lake Tanganyika, forming present-day Zambia Go to Rhodesia in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires Britain cedes the tiny island of Heligoland to Germany in return for vast areas of Africa Go to Heligoland (Schleswig-Holstein/Germany) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Britain 1750-1900 Politics Conquest and colonization Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire Europe Germany Empires Britain
1892	Frederick Lugard's Maxim machine gun settles a Protestant-Catholic clash in Kampala, the capital of Buganda Go to Maxim, Sir Hiram S. in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization Weapons British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires The French establish a protectorate in part of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey in west Africa Go to Dahomey expedition (1892–4) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Constantine Cavafy begins a 30-year career as a civil servant in Alexandria's Irrigation Service Go to Cavafy, Constantine (1863–1933) in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (7 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century North Africa Egypt
1893	France claims the Ivory Coast (or Côte d'Ivoire) in west Africa as a French colony Go to Côte d'Ivoire in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Leander Jameson, finding a pretext for war, drives Lobengula out of his kingdom in Rhodesia Go to Lobengula (c. 1836–94) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires Mahatma Gandhi, travelling with a first-class ticket, is forcibly ejected from the carriage at Pietermaritzburg because of his colour Go to Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1869–1948) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Persecution and repression British empire South Africa South Africa (republic) Empires The British Central African Protectorate is set up in the region of present-day Malawi Go to Malawi in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires
1895	The territory south of the Zambezi is given the name Rhodesia, in honour of the man who has colonized it Go to Rhodesia in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires Khama III, the king of Bechuanaland, travels to London to demand the continuing protection of the British crown Go to Khama III (1837?–1923) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires The British government takes responsibility for Kenya, as the East Africa Protectorate Go to Kenya in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Leander Jameson leads a disastrous raid into the Transvaal, in an attempt to topple Paul Kruger's government Go to Jameson Raid (1895) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1896	Cecil Rhodes' involvement with the Jameson raid forces his resignation as the Cape Colony prime minister Go to Jameson Raid (1895) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires The Ethiopian emperor, Menelik II, inflicts a shattering defeat on Italian forces at Aduwa Go to Menelik II (1844–1913) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Empires Britain unites Buganda and three other kingdoms into the single Uganda Protectorate Go to Uganda in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Italy, one of the local colonial powers, accepts Ethiopia's claim to the Ogaden region of the Somali territory Go to Menelik II (1844–1913) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Empires
1897	Zululand, annexed by Britain in 1887, is now merged with the colony of Natal Go to Zululand (KwaZulu-Natal/South Africa) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Paul Kruger, prime minister of the Transvaal, forms an alliance with the other Boer republic, the Orange Free State Go to Kruger, Paul (1825–1904) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires The UK colonial secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, appoints enthusiastic imperialist Alfred Milner as high commissioner in South Africa Go to Milner, Alfred (1854–1925) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Germany claims Ruanda and Urundi as a joint colony adjacent to German East Africa Go to German East Africa in Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires The French exile the queen of Madagascar and claim the island as a French colony Go to French empire in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire South Africa Europe Empires The British burn Benin City in a punitive expedition after members of a British delegation are murdered Go to Benin, Kingdom of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires
1898	Winston Churchill gallops into battle with the Twenty-First Lancers at Omdurman Go to Omdurman, battle of (2 September 1898) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century War Battles British prime ministers - from 1830 East Africa Rulers and politicians French and British forces meet at Fashoda, in a potentially explosive incident in the scramble for Africa Go to Fashoda crisis (1898) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire East Africa Europe Empires Kitchener's victory at Omdurman brings to an end thirteen years of rule in Sudan by followers of the Mahdi Go to Omdurman, battle of (2 September 1898) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1899	The Sudan begins half a century of supposedly joint rule by Britain and Egypt Go to Sudan in The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Mohammed ibn Abdullah (the Mad Mullah in British eyes) leads an uprising in British Somaliland Go to Hasan, Muhammad Abdille Sayyid (1864–1920) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1900	Paul Kruger flees after the British take Pretoria and annexe both the Boer republics Go to Kruger, Stephanus Johannes Paulus (1825–1904) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires The relief of Mafeking ends a long siege which brings fame to the British commander of the garrison, Robert Baden-Powell Go to Mafeking, siege of (1899–1900) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century 1900s 20th century Politics War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires The British government assumes direct responsibility for the entire region of Nigeria, previously entrusted to a commercial company Go to Nigeria in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 19th century Victorian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Empires
1901	Thousands of women and children die in the concentration camps used by the British army for displaced Boer families Go to Boer Wars (1880–81) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1902	A treaty at Vereeniging ends the Boer War and brings the Boer republics under British control Go to Vereeniging, treaty of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires After the defeat of neighbouring Transvaal in the Boer War, the British take sole control of Swaziland Go to Swaziland in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires The first Aswan dam, at this time the world's largest, is completed on the Nile See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Technology Engineering North Africa Egypt
1903	Edward VII, the first British monarch to travel to India, holds a great coronation durbar in Delhi Go to Edward VII (1841–1910) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa British monarchs - from 1066 Asia South Asia India (the subcontinent) India (republic) Europe Empires Rulers and politicians Roger Casement, British consul in the Congo Free State, discovers appalling abuses by Belgian companies Go to Casement, Sir Roger (1864–1916) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1904	A violent uprising by Herero warriors in South West Africa targets male Germans of military age Go to Herero Wars (1904–08) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire South Africa Europe Empires The German general Lothar von Trotha drives 8000 Herrero people to slow death in the Kalahari desert Go to Herero Wars (1904–08) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Empires
1905	Transvaal politician Louis Botha forms Het Volk ('The People'), a party committed to Afrikaner self-government Go to Botha, Louis (1862–1919) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Kaiser Wilhelm II visits Tangier in support of Moroccan independence, causing a diplomatic crisis with the colonial powers France and Britain Go to Moroccan Crisis, First (1905) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire German empire North Africa Europe Empires The largest diamond yet known is found in a South African mine belonging to Thomas Cullinan Go to Cullinan diamond in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Commerce and industry War South Africa South Africa (republic) Society The Maji-Maji rising results in alarming outbreaks of violence in German East Africa Go to Maji-Maji in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires The German commander in east Africa uses famine as a means of ending the Maji-Maji rising Go to Maji-Maji in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires
1906	An international conference at Algeciras effectively gives France informal control of Morocco Go to Algeciras, Conference of (1906) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires Mahatma Gandhi, confronted by racial discrimination in South Africa, launches a programme of passive resistance (satyagraha) Go to satyagraha in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent War British empire South Africa South Africa (republic) Empires Transvaal is given the self-governing status promised in the treaty ending the Boer War Go to Vereeniging, treaty of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1907	The Transvaal government presents to Edward VII the Cullinan diamond, now part of the British crown jewels Go to Cullinan diamond in The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty War British monarchs - from 1066 South Africa South Africa (republic) Rulers and politicians
1908	International outrage at Congo atrocities forces Belgium to annexe King Leopold's private colony Go to Leopold II (1835–1909) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Belgium Empires
1909	National delegates from the four provincial parliaments draw up a draft constitution for a South African union Go to South Africa in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: Edwardian era 1900s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Mineral discoveries on the border of Northern Rhodesia and the Belgian Congo give the first hint of the riches of the Copper Belt Go to Zambia in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1900s 20th century Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe Central Africa East Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Society Empires
1910	The Union of South Africa becomes an independent dominion within the British empire Go to South Africa in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Three French colonies south of the Sahara are consolidated as French Equatorial Africa Go to French Equatorial Africa in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires Louis Botha is prime minister of the newly formed Union of South Africa, with Jan Smuts as his minister of interior and defence Go to Botha, Louis (b. 27 Sept. 1862) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic)
1911	Italy finds a reason to invade Libya, a province of the Turkish empire. Go to Libya in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization Turks European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Italy Empires Germany causes international alarm by sending a warship to Agadir, a port in French-controlled Morocco Go to Agadir crisis (1911) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century Politics War European empires from 1415 German empire North Africa Europe Germany Empires Wars since 1900 Copper mining begins in Katanga, soon to be followed by the extraction of even more profitable diamonds Go to Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo) in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Commerce and industry European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Society Empires
1912	Turkey, beset by troubles elsewhere, cedes to Italy her north African province of Libya Go to Libya in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 Muslim empires Ottoman empire North Africa Asia West Asia Turkey Europe Italy Empires By the treaty of Fès a French protectorate is formally established in Morocco Go to Morocco in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires France and Spain agree that Spain shall become the colonial power in the north of Morocco and France in the south Go to Morocco in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire Spanish empire North Africa Europe Empires The South African National Native Congress (subsequently the ANC, African National Congress) is set up in Cape Province Go to ANC in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires
1913	Dinizulu's son Solomon follows his father as king or chief of the Zulu people, and direct descendants of Shaka's brother Mwande continue to inherit until today Go to Zulu in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century South Africa South Africa (republic) Albert Schweitzer and his wife become missionaries at Lambaréné in west Africa Go to Schweitzer, Albert (1875–1965) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Religion Christianity West Africa
1914	J.B.M. Hertzog founds the National Party in South Africa to represent Afrikaner interests Go to Hertzog, J. B. M. (1866–1942) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent South Africa South Africa (republic) British rule is consolidated in Nigeria by the merging of north and south as a single colony Go to Nigeria in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Empires The British government changes the status of Egypt from a Turkish province to a British protectorate Go to Egypt in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization Turks British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Egypt Europe Empires August - British and French forces invade the German colony of Togoland Go to Togoland in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900
1915	The nearest star to earth, the red dwarf Proxima Centauri 4.22 light years away, is discovered by Robert Innes, Scottish director of the Johannesburg Observatory Go to Proxima Centauri in A Dictionary of Astronomy (2 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Science Astronomy and space South Africa South Africa (republic) February - British and French forces invade and capture the German colony of Cameroon Go to Cameroon in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900 July - South African troops capture German South West Africa Go to Namibia in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire South Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900
1916	Ras Tafari, a member of the Ethiopian imperial family, deposes his distant relation the emperor and puts on the throne his aunt, Zauditu Go to Ethiopia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty East Africa Ethiopia British and French forces win full control of the German colonies of Togoland and Cameroon Go to Togoland in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900 June 17 - Belgian troops from the Congo occupy the German colony of Ruanda-Urundi Go to Burundi in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900
1918	Wafd, a national party, is formed in Cairo with the purpose of ending Egypt's enforced link with Britain Go to Wafd in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Egypt Europe Empires November 23 - Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, commander of the German army in East Africa, surrenders after four stubborn years of resistance Go to Lettow-Vorbeck, Gen Paul Emil von (1870–1964) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900
1919	More than 300 die when British troops fire on a peaceful demonstration in Amritsar Go to Amritsar Massacres (1919) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Asia South Asia India (the subcontinent) India (republic) Europe Empires The League of Nations makes South West Africa (Namibia) a mandated British territory, to be administered by South Africa Go to Namibia in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century Politics War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire North Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900 On the death of Louis Botha, Jan Smuts succeeds him as prime minister of South Africa Go to Smuts, Jan Christian (24 May 1870) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1910s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) June 28 - German East Africa is to be governed by Britain as Tanganyika, under a League of Nations mandate Go to Tanzania in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: First World War 1910s 20th century Politics War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900
1920	Destour is formed as a nationalist party in Tunisia, demanding full independence from France Go to Destour in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires
1921	The Young Kikuyu Association is formed in Kenya, to fight for African rights and the restoration of Kikuyu land Go to Kenya in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Abd-el-Krim wins a sensational victory over Spanish forces in Morocco and gains control of the Rif Go to Abd el‐Krim (1881–1963) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires
1922	Egypt becomes an independent kingdom, subject to a British military presence to protect the Suez canal Go to Suez Canal in The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Egypt Europe Empires The League of Nations gives France and Britain mandates to govern separate areas of the German colony of Cameroon Go to Cameroon in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Empires France and Britain are given a League of Nations mandate to govern separate areas of the German colony of Togoland Go to Togoland in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire West Africa Europe Empires Howard Carter exposes a flight of steps in the Valley of the Kings and comes to a barrier bearing the name Tutankhamun Go to Carter, Howard (1873–1939) in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Science North Africa Egypt
1923	The African National Congress (ANC) is formed in South Africa by renaming the South African National Native Congress Go to ANC in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Rhodesia becomes a self-governing colony with political power exclusively in the hands of European settlers Go to Rhodesia in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires
1924	James Hertzog's National Party, committed to protecting white privilege, comes to power in South Africa Go to Hertzog, James Barry Munuik (b. 3 Apr. 1866) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) The British rugby team touring South Africa are for the first time called the Lions Go to rugby football in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Sports and games Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Society Britain The League of Nations grants Belgium a mandate to administer the former Germany colony of Ruanda-Urundi Go to Burundi in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa German empire East Africa Europe Empires The British government takes on the administration of Northern Rhodesia from the British South Africa Company Go to Rhodesia in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires
1926	The Balfour Report, by former UK prime minister A.J. Balfour, suggests the way forward for the British Commonwealth of Nations Go to Balfour Report in Oxford Companion to Australian Politics (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa British prime ministers - from 1830 Europe Empires Rulers and politicians Britain
1928	Jomo Kenyatta becomes the editor of Muigwithania, the newspaper of the Kikuyu Central Association Go to Kenyatta, Jomo (b. 10 Oct) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Hassan al-Banna, a schoolteacher in Ismailia, founds the Muslim Brotherhood – to campaign for a society based on the Qu'ran with the sharia as its legal system Go to Muslim Brotherhood in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1920s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent Religion Islam North Africa Egypt
1930	The regent Ras Tafari becomes emperor of Ethiopia and takes the name Haile Selassie Go to Haile Selassie I (1892–1975) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty East Africa Ethiopia
1931	The Statute of Westminster defines and formalizes the concept of the British Commonwealth Go to Statute of Westminster in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Politics Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles South Africa Australia and Oceania New Zealand Europe Britain North America Canada On his first expedition to the Olduvai Gorge, Louis Leakey finds the oldest object now in the British Museum - the chopping tool from about 1.8 million years ago Go to Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Science East Africa
1933	The Hutus and Tutsis of Ruanda-Urundi are issued with racial identity cards by the Belgians Go to Hutu and Tutsi in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1934	Neo-Destour, a party demanding Tunisian independence, has Habib Bourguiba as its secretary general Go to Bourguiba, Habib (1903–2000) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires
1935	Mussolini uses a disagreement over grazing rights as a pretext for an empire-building invasion of Ethiopia Go to Abyssinia, Italian invasion of (1935–6) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Politics War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Italy Empires A collection of Constantine Cavafy's poems is published in Alexandria in an undated edition Go to Cavafy, Constantine Peter (1863–1933) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Literature Poetry North Africa Egypt Europe Greece
1936	On the death of his father, Fuad I, the 16-year-old Farouk becomes king of Egypt Go to Farouk I (1920–1965) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Egypt The Italian forces invading Ethiopia reach Addis Ababa, and Haile Selassie flees into exile Go to Haile Selassie (1892–1975) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Empires A rebellion by Spanish troops in Morocco is soon led by Francisco Franco and sparks the Spanish Civil War Go to Spanish Civil War (1936–39) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion North Africa Europe Spain
1937	Danish author Karen Blixen publishes her autobiographical novel Out of Africa Go to Blixen, Karen (1885–1962) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s 20th century Literature Fiction East Africa Europe
1939	September 4 - Jan Smuts defeats J.B.M. Hertzog in a vote on neutrality, and takes Hertzog's place as South African premier Go to Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1870–1950) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s Second World War 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent War South Africa South Africa (republic) Wars since 1900 September 4 - Jan Smuts brings South Africa into the war in support of Britain Go to Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1870–1950) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1930s Second World War 20th century War South Africa South Africa (republic) Wars since 1900
1940	July 3 - British warships bombard the French fleet in harbour at Mers-el-Kébir, in Algeria, killing more than 1250 sailors Go to Mers el-Kebir (3 July 1940) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900
1941	January 22 - Archibald Wavell's Allied divisions, after a rapid desert campaign, drive the Italians from the Libyan port of Tobruk Go to Tobruk, Siege of (Apr. 1941–June 1942) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900 February 3 - Adolf Hitler sends Erwin Rommel to save the Italians from looming disaster in north Africa Go to Rommel, Erwin (1891–1944) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900 April 6 - the Allies recover Ethiopia from the Italians and Haile Selassie returns to his throne in Addis Ababa Go to Abyssinia, WW II campaign in (1941) in The Oxford Companion to Military History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Empires Wars since 1900 July - Churchill appoints Claude Auchinleck as British commander in North Africa and the Middle East Go to Auchinleck, Sir Claude John Eyre (1884–1981) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900 July - Britain's Special Air Service (SAS) is formed for unorthodox guerrilla operations in the north African desert Go to Special Air Service in The Oxford Companion to World War II (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900 December 19 - Italian frogmen enter the harbour at Alexandria and cripple two British battleships Go to frogmen in The Oxford Companion to World War II (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War Alexandria North Africa Egypt Wars since 1900
1942	Algerian nationalist Ferhat Abbas produces a manifesto demanding independence from France Go to Abbas, Ferhat (b. 24 Oct. 1899) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires June 21 - German general Erwin Rommel captures Tobruk, along with 33,000 British soldiers and valuable supplies Go to Tobruk, Siege of (1941–42) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900 July 4 - Auchinleck finally stops Rommel's advance, in the first battle of El Alamein Go to El Alamein, Battles of (1942) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War Battles North Africa Egypt Wars since 1900 August - US general Dwight Eisenhower is appointed to command Allied landings in north Africa Go to North African Campaigns (June 1940–May 1943) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War US presidents North Africa Rulers and politicians Wars since 1900 North America United States August 13 - Bernard Montgomery is appointed commander of the demoralized British and Commonwealth Eighth Army in North Africa Go to Montgomery, Bernard (1887–1976) in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles North Africa Europe Wars since 1900 Britain August 30 - Rommel's new thrust towards Alexandria is halted by the British at Alam al-Halfa, a ridge near El Alamein Go to Alamein, El, Battle of (1942) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Egypt Wars since 1900 October 23 - Montgomery launches the second battle of El Alamein against Rommel Go to El Alamein, Battles of (1942) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War Battles North Africa Egypt Wars since 1900 November - in a few weeks Montgomery and the Eighth Army push Rommel back some 1200 miles, into Tunisia Go to North African Campaigns (June 1940–May 1943) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900 November 8 - American and British forces, under Dwight Eisenhower, land in Morocco and Algeria Go to Torch, Operation in The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War US presidents North Africa Rulers and politicians Wars since 1900 November 12 - after three days of resistance the French commanders in north Africa bring their troops over to the Allied side Go to North African Campaigns (June 1940–May 1943) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900
1943	William Tubman begins a 28-year spell as president of Liberia Go to Tubman, William Vacanarat Shadrach (Nov. 1895) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics West Africa January 12 - Roosevelt and Churchill meet in Casablanca for a strategic conference Go to Casablanca Conference in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War British prime ministers - from 1830 US presidents North Africa Rulers and politicians Wars since 1900 January 24 - the Casablanca Conference includes the decision to insist on unconditional surrender by the Axis powers Go to Casablanca Conference in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900 May 7 - the Allies capture Tunis, taking 250,000 German and Italian prisoners and winning control of North Africa Go to North African campaigns (June 1940–May 1943) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s Second World War 20th century War North Africa Wars since 1900
c. 1945	Gamal Abdel Nasser and army colleagues form a secret party, the Free Officers, to fight for an independent Egyptian republic Go to Nasser, Gamal Abdel (1918–1970) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Egypt Europe Empires Arab countries, gathered for a conference in Cairo, form the Arab League to further their joint interests Go to Arab League in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics North Africa Egypt Demonstrations in Algeria spark off an uprising against French rule, which is put down with the loss of perhaps 10,000 Muslim lives Go to Parti du Peuple Algérien in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires
1948	Daniel Malan becomes South Africa's prime minister after his National Party wins the general election Go to Malan, Daniel François (1874–1959) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent South Africa South Africa (republic) Daniel Malan moves swiftly to reinforce apartheid, South Africa's already existing system of racial segregation Go to apartheid in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics Persecution and repression Social and domestic South Africa South Africa (republic) Society The Muslim Brotherhood carries out acts of terrorism against the Egyptian authorities and British troops Go to Muslim Brotherhood in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination Religion Islam North Africa Egypt
1949	Egypt controls the Gaza Strip area of Palestine at the end of the Arab-Israeli war Go to Gaza Strip in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century War North Africa Egypt Radical young members, including Nelson Mandela, take control of the ANC Go to ANC in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1940s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion South Africa South Africa (republic)
c. 1950	Soweto begins to be built outside Johannesburg to segregate the city's black labour force Go to Soweto, South Africa in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Social and domestic South Africa South Africa (republic) Society The British government bans hereditary ruler Seretse Khama from Bechuanaland because he has married a white woman Go to Khama, Sir Seretse (1921–80) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires
1951	Libya wins independence from Italy, as a kingdom with Idris I as head of state Go to Libya in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires
1952	A decision by the United Nations makes Eritrea an autonomous federal province within Ethiopia Go to Eritrea in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics East Africa Ethiopia Kwame Nkrumah, recently released from gaol, becomes prime minister of the British colony of the Gold Coast Go to Nkrumah, Kwame (c. 1909–1972) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires A group of officers led by Gamal Abdel Nasser depose Egypt's king, Farouk, and send him into exile Go to Nasser, Gamal Abdel (1918–1970) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Egypt Europe Empires Ahmed Ben Bella forms the Front de Libération National (FLN) to fight for Algerian independence Go to Ben Bella, Mohammed Ahmed (25 Dec. 1916) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires An outbreak of terrorism in Kenya is orchestrated by a secret Kikuyu organization, the Mau Mau Go to Mau Mau (1952–9) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion Terrorism and assassination British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1953	Jomo Kenyatta, charged with having organized the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya, is sentenced to seven years in prison Go to Kenyatta, Jomo (1894?–1978) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires South African author Nadine Gordimer publishes her first novel, The Lying Days Go to Gordimer, Nadine (1923– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Literature Literature in English Fiction South Africa South Africa (republic) The two Rhodesias and Nyasaland are merged in the self-governing Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland Go to Central African Federation in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires
1954	A radical manifesto and acts of terrorism alert the world to the emergence of the FLN, committed to independence for Algeria Go to Front de Libération nationale in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion Terrorism and assassination European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires Gamal Abd al-Nasser mounts another coup, this time against his colleague Mohammed Neguib, to make himself president of Egypt Go to Nasser, Gamal Abd al‐ (b. 15 Jan. 1918) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics North Africa Egypt Nasser escapes an assassination attempt by the fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood Go to Muslim Brotherhood in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination Religion Islam North Africa Egypt
1955	An armed uprising in Morocco persuades France to accept the principle of independence for the colony Go to Morocco in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire North Africa Europe Empires Nasser alarms the west by buying eastern-bloc arms through Czechoslovakia Go to Nasser, Gamal Abdel in The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics War Cold war North Africa Egypt Wars since 1900
1956	Civil war breaks out in Sudan between the Muslim north and the Christian south Go to Sudan in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Religion Christianity Islam War East Africa The Sudan, declining the opportunity of union with Egypt, opts for independence as a separate state Go to Sudan in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Tunisia wins independence from France, with Habib Bourguiba as prime minister Go to Tunisia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires French Morocco and Spanish Morocco win independence from the two colonial powers Go to Morocco in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire Spanish empire North Africa Europe Empires After a plebiscite British Togo is merged with the neighbouring colony of the Gold Coast Go to Togo in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires The USA and Britain withdraw their offer of financial aid for Nasser's Aswan dam Go to Aswan High Dam in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics War Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles Cold war North Africa Egypt Europe Wars since 1900 Britain North America United States Egypt's president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez canal and wins Soviet finance for his Aswan dam Go to Suez Crisis in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics War British prime ministers - from 1830 Cold war North Africa Egypt Rulers and politicians Wars since 1900 Nasser disregards a French and British ultimatum to withdraw from the Suez canal Go to Suez Crisis in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics War British prime ministers - from 1830 North Africa Egypt Rulers and politicians The British and French bomb Egyptian airfields, and land troops near Port Said and the Suez canal Go to Suez crisis in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century War British prime ministers - from 1830 North Africa Egypt Rulers and politicians Under international pressure Britain and France agree to a humiliating withdrawal from Suez Go to Suez crisis in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics War British prime ministers - from 1830 North Africa Egypt Rulers and politicians The MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) is formed as a guerrilla movement to end Portuguese rule Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics War Portuguese empire South Africa Empires
1957	Kwame Nkrumah leads the Gold Coast into independence under a name of historic resonance, Ghana Go to Ghana in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires The FNLA is established, with US support, as a guerrilla group to fight for a non-communist independent Angola Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Cold war South Africa Europe Empires Wars since 1900
1958	Egypt and Syria merge as the United Arab Republic (but disengage three years later) Go to United Arab Republic in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria French Algerians seize government buildings in Algiers, in a campaign to ensure that Algerian remains French Go to Algerian War of Independence (1954–62) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires On his second day in power, de Gaulle visits Algiers to confront the settlers with an unwelcome message Go to Gaulle, Charles de (b. 22 Nov. 1890) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe France Empires Nigerian dramatist Wole Soyinka's play The Swamp Dwellers is produced in London Go to Soyinka, Wole (1934– ) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Performing arts Theatre Literature American literature Literature in English German literature Drama West Africa Germany The colony of French Guinea opts for immediate independence as the republic of Guinea, breaking its links with France Go to Guinea in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Sekou Touré, the first president of Guinea, settles in for twenty-six years of dictatorial rule Go to Touré, Ahmed Sékou (9 Jan. 1922) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization West Africa Hendrik Verwoerd becomes prime minister of South Africa on the death of J.G. Strijdom Go to Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch (b. 8 Sept. 1901) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic)
1959	In the Hola camp, in Kenya, eleven Mau Mau prisoners die from their treatment at the hand of British forces Go to Mau Mau (1952–9) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Mary Leakey finds in the Olduvai Gorge the first specimen of a new hominid species, now known as Australopithecus Boisei Go to Leakey, Louis Seymour Bazett (1903–1972) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Science East Africa The Transkei becomes the first African homeland, or Bantustan, within South Africa Go to Bantustan in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) Rwanda suffers the first nationwide outbreak of Hutu violence against Tutsis Go to Rwanda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1950s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa
1960	UK prime minister Harold Macmillan, in Cape Town, warns the white settlers of Africa that 'the wind of change' is blowing through their continent See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa British prime ministers - from 1830 South Africa South Africa (republic) Europe Empires Rulers and politicians French Cameroun becomes independent as the republic of Cameroun, with Ahmadou Ahidjo as the first president Go to Cameroon in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires Kenneth Kaunda is elected president of UNIP, a new party fighting for an independent Northern Rhodesia Go to Kaunda, Kenneth David (1924– ) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires South African police fire on a crowd in Sharpeville, near Johannesburg, killing more than sixty people Go to Sharpeville Massacre (21 Mar. 1960) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Persecution and repression South Africa South Africa (republic) French Togo becomes independent as the republic of Togo, with Sylvanus Olympio as president Go to Togo in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires French Sudan becomes independent as the republic of Mali, with Modibo Keita as president Go to Mali in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Madagascar becomes independent (under the name Malagasy republic from till 1975), with Philibert Tsiranana as president Go to Madagascar in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires Patrice Lumumba becomes prime minister of the newly independent Democratic Republic of the Congo, previously the Belgian Congo Go to Lumumba, Patrice Emergy (b. 2 July 1925) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires The South West Africa People's Organization is founded to fight against South African control of Namibia Go to South West Africa People's Organization in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires British and Italian colonies merge as the independent Somali republic, also known as Somalia, with Aden Abdullah Osman as president Go to Somalia in The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Moise Tshombe, taking advantage of chaos in the Congo, declares the independence of Katanga Go to Tshombe, Moise (1920–69) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion Central Africa East Africa Anti-European riots in the Congo cause some 25,000 Belgians to flee the country Go to Congo crisis (1960–65) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Social and domestic European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Society Empires Nelson Mandela leads a new armed section of the ANC (African National Congress), formed in response to Sharpeville Go to Mandela, Nelson Rolihlahla (1918) in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion South Africa South Africa (republic) The French colony of Dahomey (known from 1975 as Benin) becomes independent but suffers six military coups in its first twelve years Go to Benin in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Niger becomes independent, with Hamani Diori as the new nation's first president Go to Niger in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Germany Empires Kenyatta, still in prison, is elected leader of KANU, a new political party in Kenya Go to Kenya in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires The French colony of Upper Volta becomes independent as Burkina Faso, with Maurice Yaméogo as president Go to Burkina Faso in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Félix Houphouët-Boigny, first president of the newly independent Ivory Coast, begins thirty-three years of relatively peaceful rule Go to Ivory Coast in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires The French colony of Chad becomes independent with François Tombalbaye as president Go to Chad in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires The French colony of Gabon becomes independent with Léon M'ba as president Go to Gabon in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires The French colony of Ubangi-Shari becomes independent and takes the name Central African Republic Go to Central African Republic in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires The French Congo becomes independent as the republic of Congo, with Fulbert Youlou as president Go to Congo, Republic of the in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires Mobutu Sese Seko takes power in a military coup in the midst of chaos in the Congo Go to Mobutu, Sese Seko (1930–97) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa The French colony of Senegal becomes independent, with Léopold Senghor as the new nation's first president Go to Senegal in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Nigeria wins independence, with Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as prime minister, but its stability is threatened by tribal and regional factions Go to Nigeria in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires Patrice Lumumba, the dismissed prime minister of the Congo, is arrested on the orders of the army chief of staff, Mobutu Sese Seko Go to Mobutu, Sese Soko (1930–1997) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa The French colony of Mauritania becomes independent, with Moktar Ould Daddah as president Go to Mauritania in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire West Africa Europe Empires Albert Luthuli, president of the ANC in South Africa, is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize Go to Luthuli, Albert John (c. 1898–1967) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic)
1961	Patrice Lumumba is sent to Katanga, where he is murdered Go to Lumumba, Patrice (2 July 1925) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires Hassan II begins a 38-year reign as the king of Morocco Go to Hassan II (b. 9 July 1929) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Former British colony Sierra Leone becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth Go to Sierra Leone in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires Joshua Nkomo founds ZAPU, the Zimbabwe African People's Union, in the British colony of Southern Rhodesia Go to Nkomo, Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo (b. 17 June 1917) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires Two French generals, Raoul Salan and Edmond Jouhaud, form the OAS (Organisation de l'Armée Secrète) to preserve French rule in Algeria Go to Organisation de l'Armée Secrète in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires Commonwealth opposition to apartheid causes South Africa to leave the organization and become a republic Go to South Africa, Republic of in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) Nelson Mandela and the ANC adopt guerrilla tactics against the apartheid regime in South Africa Go to ANC in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion South Africa South Africa (republic) The UN secretary general, Dag Hammarskjöld, dies in a plane crash while trying to secure peace in Katanga Go to Hammarskjöld, Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl (1905–61) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa The southern part of the British Cameroons votes to merge with Cameroun, becoming the federal republic of Cameroon Go to Cameroon in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires Tanganyika becomes an independent nation with Julius Nyerere as prime minister Go to Tanzania in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1962	Frelimo emerges as a Marxist guerrilla group dedicated to winning independence for Mozambique Go to FRELIMO in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Communism Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire South Africa Europe Empires The Eritrean parliament votes to merge fully with Ethiopia, ending Eritrean autonomy Go to Eritrea in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics East Africa Ethiopia Ian Smith's white supremacist party, the Rhodesian Front, wins power in Rhodesia's election Go to Smith, Ian Douglas (1919–2007) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires A massive yes vote in a referendum is immediately followed by French recognition of Algerian independence Go to Algeria in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires The former British colony of Uganda becomes an independent republic, with Milton Obote as prime minister Go to Uganda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires
1963	Moise Tshombe's rebel regime in Katanga crumbles, and he flees to Spain Go to Tshombe, Moise-Kapenda (1919–1969) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion Central Africa East Africa The OAU (Organization of African Unity) is founded in Addis Ababa to give Africa a united voice in world affairs Go to African Union in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Ethiopia Europe Empires Robert Mugabe and Ndabaningi Sithole split from ZAPU to found ZANU, the Zimbabwe African National Union Go to ZANU in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires An invasion of Rwanda by Tutsi guerrillas prompts the first major Hutu massacre of Tutsis Go to Rwanda in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa Zanzibar becomes an independent nation and a member of the Commonwealth Go to Zanzibar in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Kenya becomes independent, with Jomo Kenyatta as prime minister Go to Kenya in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is dissolved, as the three colonies go their separate ways Go to Central African Federation in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires
1964	Ian Smith, now prime minister of Rhodesia, arrests leading black politicians Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe Go to Smith, Ian Douglas (1919–2007) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge as the United Republic of Tanzania Go to Nkomo, Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo (b. 17 June 1917) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa East Africa Europe Empires Nelson Mandela is sentenced to life imprisonment and is sent to a gaol on Robben Island Go to Mandela, Nelson Rolihlahla (b. 18 July 1918) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) Hastings Banda is prime minister of the newly independent nation of Malawi, formerly Nyasaland Go to Malawi in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires Kenneth Kaunda becomes president of the independent republic of Zambia, previously Northern Rhodesia Go to Zambia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires
1965	The Gambia becomes an independent member of the Commonwealth, with Dawda Jawara as prime minister Go to Gambia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa West Africa Europe Empires Defence minister Houari Boumédienne leads a coup to oust President Ben Bella in Algeria Go to Boumédienne, Houari (b. 23 Aug. 1927) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics North Africa Mobutu stages his second coup in the Congo and this time takes power as president Go to Mobutu, Sese Soko (1930–1997) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa Ian Smith makes a unilateral declaration of Rhodesia's independence Go to Rhodesia in A Dictionary of British History (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires
1966	Kwame Nkrumah, the founding father of Ghana, is toppled in a coup while away on a state visit to China Go to Nkrumah, Kwame (c. 1909–1972) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics West Africa Jean-Bedel Bokassa takes power in a coup in the Central African Republic Go to Bokassa, Jean Bédel (b. 22 Feb. 1921) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa UNITA, led by Jonas Savimbi, joins the fight for Angolan independence Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics War European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire South Africa Europe Empires Prime minister Hendrik Verwoerd is stabbed to death in the South African parliament Go to Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch (1901–66) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) Former chief Seretse Khama becomes the first president of an independent Botswana Go to Khama, Sir Seretse (1921–80) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires
1967	The Ibo of eastern Nigeria claim independence for their region – as the republic of Biafra Go to Biafra in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion West Africa Germany A pre-emptive air strike by Israel destroys almost all Egypt's aircraft and launches the Six-Day War Go to Six Day War in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century War North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard, in Cape Town, transplants the heart of a young woman into a 55-year-old grocer, Louis Washkansky Go to Barnard, Christiaan Neethling (1922–2001) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Science Medicine South Africa South Africa (republic)
1968	Spanish Guinea becomes an independent republic as Equatorial Guinea, with Francisco Macias Nguema as president Go to Equatorial Guinea in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Spanish empire Central Africa East Africa Europe Empires The United Nations, with the approval of Britain as the colonial power, imposes economic sanctions on Rhodesia Go to Zimbabwe in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Commerce and industry British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Society Empires Peter Nzube finds the oldest skull yet discovered in the Olduvai Gorge and names the specimen Twiggy, after the British fashion model of the time Go to Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Science East Africa
1969	At a congress in Cairo, Yasser Arafat is appointed leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Go to Arafat, Yasser (1929–2004) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Idris I, king of Libya, is deposed in a bloodless coup led by Muammar al-Gaddafi Go to Gaddafi, Muammar al- (b. Sept. 1942) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty North Africa Paintings discovered on stone slabs in a cave in Namibia are dated to about 28,000 years ago Go to rock art in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1960s 20th century Arts Painting Science South Africa
1970	The breakaway province of Biafra surrenders after three years of devastating civil war in Nigeria Go to Biafra in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century War West Africa Germany Nasser dies of a sudden heart attack and is succeeded as Egypt's president by Anwar el-Sadat Go to Sadat, Muhammad Anwar al- (b. 25 Dec. 1918) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics North Africa Egypt
1971	Idi Amin leads a successful coup against the president of Uganda, Milton Obote Go to Amin, Idi (1925) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics East Africa Mobutu gives the Congo a new name, Zaire, deriving from an African word for river Go to Congo, Democratic Republic of in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa Libya's political bible is now the Green Book by Muammar al-Gaddafi Go to Gaddafi, Mu'ammer Muhammad al (1942–2011) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics North Africa
1972	In an orgy of ethnic slaughter in Burundi, Tutsis klll some 100,000 Hutus Go to Burundi in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa
1973	The Polisario is formed to fight for the independence of Western Sahara Go to Polisario Front in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires Winning power in a military coup, Juvenal Habyarimana begins a 21-year spell as dictator in Rwanda Go to Habyarimana, Juvénal (1937?–1994) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics East Africa Egypt and Syria launch a surprise attack against Israel on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement Go to Yom Kippur War (Oct. 1973) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century War North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Arab oil-exporting countries cause an economic crisis by denying oil to western countries supporting Israel Go to oil crisis in A Dictionary of Economics (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Commerce and industry North Africa Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Society North America
1974	Donald Johanson and Tom Gray find an almost complete Australopithecus female skeleton at Hadar in Ethiopia, and nickname her Lucy after the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Science Life sciences East Africa Ethiopia An uprising organized in Ethiopia by the Dergue results in the arrest of Haile Selassie and his murder a year later Go to Haile Selassie I, Emperor (27 Jul. 1882) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Dynasties and royalty East Africa Ethiopia Portuguese Guinea becomes independent as Guinea-Bissau, with Luís Cabral as president Go to Guinea-Bissau in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire West Africa Europe Empires
1975	The independence of Angola is established in the Alvor agreement between Portugal and three rival guerrilla groups, the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Europe Empires The MPLA, controlling the capital but not the country, declares itself the government of newly independent Angola Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics War South Africa The republic of Dahomey changes its name to one already famous in African history – Benin Go to Benin in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics West Africa UNITA and the FNLA join forces to set up a rival Angolan government at Huambo, in the south of the country Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics War South Africa The king of Morocco sends 350,000 settlers across the border into Western Sahara Go to bin Mohammed, Hassan Moulai (9 Jul. 1929) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires Yakubu Gowon, who united Nigeria after the Biafran war, is thrown out in a military coup Go to Gowon, Yakubu (19 Oct. 1934) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics West Africa Germany Portuguese East Africa becomes independent as Mozambique, with Frelimo as the only political party Go to Mozambique in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire South Africa Europe Empires The Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa, become independent as the republic of Cape Verde Go to Cape Verde in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Portuguese empire West Africa Europe Empires In Angola the USA and USSR fund rival guerrilla groups, MPLA and UNITA Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics War Cold war South Africa Wars since 1900 Cuban troops, sent by Castro to Angola, clash with South African forces attempting to combat communism Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Communism War Cold war South Africa Wars since 1900 Latin America Cuba
1976	Mary Leakey and her team find footprints, about 3.6 million years old, of bipedal hominids walking upright at Laetoli in Tanzania Go to Leakey, Mary (1913–1996) in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Science East Africa The UN entrusts the Western Sahara to joint administration by Morocco and Mauritania Go to Western Sahara in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires A guerrilla movement, with Rhodesian backing, launches a long civil war against Frelimo in Mozambique Go to Mozambique in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics War South Africa The Polisario, as a government-in-exile in Algeria, proclaim the independence of Western Sahara as the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic Go to Western Sahara in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires Hundreds of deaths and casualties result from police firing on a demonstration by schoolchildren in the black township of Soweto Go to Soweto in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century South Africa South Africa (republic) In a daring raid on Entebbe airport, Israeli troops rescue hostages hijacked on a flight from Tel Aviv to Paris Go to Entebbe Raid in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Social and domestic East Africa Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Society
1977	Mengistu Haile Mariam seizes control of Ethiopia's ruling Dergue (military council) in a violent coup Go to Mengistu Haile Mariam (1940) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics East Africa Ethiopia The French Territory of Afars and Issas becomes independent as Djibouti, with Hassan Gouled Aptidon as president Go to Djibouti in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa French empire East Africa Europe Empires Steve Biko, founder of Black Consciousness, dies of head wounds received in police custody in Pretoria Go to Biko, Steve (b. 18 Dec. 1946) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Persecution and repression Protest and rebellion South Africa South Africa (republic) Anwar el-Sadat, the Egyptian president, travels to Jerusalem to propose a peace plan to the Israelis Go to Sadat, Anwar Mohammed (25 Dec. 1918) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Jerusalem North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel In a multi-million dollar ceremony, Jean-Bédel Bokassa proclaims himself emperor of the Central African Republic Go to Bokassa, Jean Bédel (b. 22 Feb. 1921) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa
1978	Jomo Kenyatta dies in office as Kenya's president and is succeeded by his deputy, Daniel arap Moi Go to Moi, Daniel Toroitich arap (b. 2 Sept. 1924) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics East Africa Anwar el-Sadat and Menachem Begin sign an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty at Camp David in the USA Go to Camp David Accords (Sept. 1978) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics US presidents North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel Rulers and politicians North America United States Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian president Anwar el-Sadat share the Nobel Peace Prize Go to Sadat, Mohammed Anwar al (1918–1981) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics North Africa Egypt Asia West Asia Palestine and Israel
1979	Morocco annexes the Mauritanian part of the Western Sahara, thus taking control of the entire region Go to Western Sahara in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa North Africa Europe Empires Idi Amin flees from Uganda as Tanzanian troops reach his capital, Kampala Go to Amin, Idi (1925) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics East Africa The first multiracial elections held in Rhodesia are won by bishop Abel Muzorewa Go to Muzorewa, Abel Tendekayi (b. 14 Apr. 1925) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics British empire Zimbabwe South Africa Empires Young officers, led by flight lieutenant Jerry Rawlings, take power in a coup in Ghana Go to Rawlings, Jerry John (22 June 1947) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics West Africa French paratroops bring to an end the savage rule of Bokassa in the Central African Republic Go to Bokassa, Jean Bédel (b. 22 Feb. 1921) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa A conference in London, at Lancaster House, finally achieves agreement on Southern Rhodesia Go to Zimbabwe in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1970s 20th century Politics Great Britain - from 1707 United Kingdom - from 1801 British Isles British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires Britain
1980	Rhodesia becomes independent, taking the name Zimbabwe, with Robert Mugabe as prime minister Go to Zimbabwe in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization British empire European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Europe Empires A coup in Uganda brings Milton Obote back into power, and he is confirmed as president in a subsequent general election Go to Obote, Milton Apollo (28 Dec. 1925) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics East Africa
1981	Muslim terrorists assassinate Anwar el-Sadat, in response to his peace agreement with Israel Go to Sadat, Muhammad Anwar al- (b. 25 Dec. 1918) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination Religion Islam North Africa Egypt Palestine and Israel Sadat is peacefully succeeded in Egypt by his vice-president, Hosni Mubarak Go to Mubarak, Mohammed Hosni Said (4 May 1928) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics North Africa Egypt
1982	Senegal and the Gambia partially merge as Senegambia, in a confederation which lasts seven years Go to Senegambia in The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics West Africa Yasser Arafat and the PLO move to Tunisia, after being driven out of Lebanon by Israel Go to PLO in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics North Africa Asia West Asia Lebanon and Syria Palestine and Israel
1983	South African novelist J.M. Coetzee publishes The Life and Times of Michael K, and wins the Booker Prize Go to Coetzee, J. M. (1940– ) in The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Literature Literature in English Fiction South Africa South Africa (republic) Government imposition of Islamic law (sharia) triggers renewed civil war in Sudan between the Muslim north and Christian south Go to Sudan, Christianity in in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Religion Christianity Islam War East Africa
1984	The name of Upper Volta is changed to Burkina Faso, meaning 'land of incorruptible people' Go to Burkina Faso in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics West Africa A disastrous famine in the northern provinces of Ethiopia is the first to be seen all round the world on television Go to Ethiopia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Performing arts East Africa Ethiopia The Turkana Boy, the most complete known skeleton of Homo erectus, is found near Lake Turkana by Kamoya Kimeu in Richard Leakey's team Go to Hominid Evolution in Encyclopedia of Evolution (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Science East Africa Desmond Tutu, rector of an Anglican church in Soweto, is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize Go to Tutu, Desmond Mpilo (1931– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic)
1985	Milton Obote, toppled in a bloodless Uganda coup, escapes to Zambia Go to Obote, Apollo Milton (b. 1924) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics East Africa Julius Nyerere, long-serving president of Tanzania, relinquishes power voluntarily Go to Nyerere, Julius Kambarage (Mar. 1922) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics East Africa
1986	The guerrilla leader Yoweri Museveni takes Kampala and becomes president of Uganda Go to Museveni, Yoweri Kaguta (1944) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics East Africa President Reagan launches an air strike against Libya, accusing Gaddafi of involvement in international terrorism Go to Libya in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics War US presidents North Africa Rulers and politicians North America United States Western nations finally impose sanctions on South Africa in response to apartheid Go to South Africa in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) The Rwandan Patriotic Front is formed, by a group of exiles, to bring about the downfall of Habyarimana's regime in Rwanda Go to Rwanda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion East Africa Desmond Tutu is the first black African to be archbishop of Cape Town Go to Tutu, Desmond Mpilo (1931– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Religion Christianity Social and domestic South Africa South Africa (republic) Society
1988	A cease-fire withdraws Cuban troops from Angola and South African forces from Angola and Namibia Go to Angola in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century War Cold war South Africa Wars since 1900
1989	Frederik Willem de Klerk, promising reform, wins a whites-only South African presidential election Go to De Klerk, Frederik Willem (18 Mar. 1936) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1980s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic)
1990	South African president F.W. de Klerk announces his radical intention to end apartheid Go to De Klerk, Frederik Willem (18 Mar. 1936) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) Nelson Mandela is given an ecstatic reception on his release after twenty-six years in prison on Robben Island, near Cape Town Go to Mandela, Nelson (Rolihlahia) (1918– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion South Africa South Africa (republic) The aged president, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, wins the Ivory Coast's first democratic elections Go to Houphouët‐Boigny, Félix (b. 18 Oct. 1905?) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent West Africa Namibia becomes independent with Sam Nujoma as president Go to Nujoma, Sam Daniel Saffishuna (12 May 1929) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Conquest and colonization European empires from 1415 European empires in Africa South Africa Europe Empires Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi transforms Inkatha into a political party, the Inkatha Freedom Party Go to Inkatha Freedom Party in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent South Africa South Africa (republic) An army of the Rwandan Patriotic Front crosses the border from Uganda to invade Rwanda Go to Rwanda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics East Africa
1991	Expelled from his own country, Saudi Arabia, Osama bin Laden moves to Sudan where he continues to develop al-Qaeda Go to Bin Laden, Osama (1957–2011) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination North Africa Asia West Asia A Tuareg uprising in Mali results in some 120,000 refugees fleeing the country Go to Mali in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics West Africa The incumbent president, Mathieu Kérékou, loses in Benin's first democratic election Go to Benin, Republic of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent West Africa As Ethiopian and Eritrean rebels approach Addis Ababa, the leader of the Dergue, Mengistu, flees the country Go to Mengistu Haile Mariam (1940) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Protest and rebellion East Africa Ethiopia The rebel Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), led by Meles Zenawi, takes control in Ethiopia Go to Zenawi, Meles (1995) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics East Africa Ethiopia Another cease-fire in Angola's bitter civil war brings another brief period of peace Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War South Africa Morocco and the Polisario end hostilities on the understanding that there will be a referendum in the Western Sahara Go to Western Sahara in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics War North Africa Hutu youth militias, known as the Interahamwe, are formed in Rwanda to spearhead attacks on Tutsis Go to Rwanda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa Civil war in Somalia topples the Marxist dictator Mohamed Siad Barre Go to Somalia in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Communism War East Africa The Revolutionary United Front, led by Foday Sankoh, attacks Sierra Leone from bases in Liberia Go to Sierra Leone in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War West Africa Multiparty elections in Zambia result in a massive defeat for the long-serving president, Kenneth Kaunda Go to Kaunda, Kenneth David (28 Apr. 1924) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent South Africa A new party, the Islamic Salvation Front, seems certain to win the Algerian election – until the army intervenes Go to Islamic Salvation Front in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent Religion Islam North Africa
1992	Algeria is plunged into a brutal civil war between a military junta and Muslim terrorists Go to Algeria in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Religion Islam War North Africa The New York company Dance Theatre of Harlem tours South Africa, with the slogan 'Dancing Through Barriers' Go to Dance Theatre of Harlem in The Oxford Dictionary of Dance (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Performing arts Dance South Africa South Africa (republic) North America United States UNITA revives the Angolan civil war after the MPLA wins a decisive election victory Go to Angola in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics War South Africa The UN sends troops to famine-stricken and war-torn Somalia Go to Somalia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics War East Africa
1993	Apartheid ends in South Africa, after two thirds of white voters vote for its abolition in a referendum Go to apartheid in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent South Africa South Africa (republic) Guinea's first democratic election is won by the incumbent president, Lansana Conté Go to Guinea in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent West Africa The UN imposes sanctions because of Libya's refusal to cooperate in the Lockerbie air disaster enquiry Go to Libya in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Commerce and industry North Africa Society The new federalist regime in Ethiopia cedes independence to Eritrea Go to Eritrea in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics East Africa Ethiopia President Habyarimana alienates Rwanda's Hutu Power extremists by coming to terms with the Rwandan Patriotic Front Go to Habyarimana, Juvénal (1937?–1994) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics East Africa Melchior Ndadaye, the first Hutu president of Burundi, is killed by Tutsis within months of his election Go to Burundi in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa Civil war in Burundi, between Hutus and Tutsis, follows the murder of the first Hutu president Go to Burundi in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War East Africa Nelson Mandela and F.W. de Klerk are jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their partnership in South Africa Go to Mandela, Nelson (Rolihlahia) (1918– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic)
1994	The Hutu government in Rwanda preaches genocide against Tutsis Go to Rwandan Genocide in The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Persecution and repression Terrorism and assassination East Africa US and European troops are withdrawn from the UN force in turbulent Somalia Go to Somalia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics War East Africa The Rwandan president, Juvenal Habyarimana, dies when his plane is shot down Go to Habyarimana, Juvénal (1937?–1994) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa Cyprian Ntayamira, the second Hutu president of Burundi, dies in the crash of the president of Rwanda's plane Go to Burundi in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa The assassination of Rwandan president Juvenal Habyarimana sparks the outbreak of genocide Go to Rwandan Genocide in The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Persecution and repression Terrorism and assassination East Africa As many as 800,000 people die, most of them slashed to death with machetes, in three months of genocide in Rwanda Go to Rwandan Genocide in The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Persecution and repression Terrorism and assassination East Africa A new constitution in South Africa guarantees equal rights to all citizens Go to South Africa in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) South Africa's first non-racial election is won by the ANC with 63% of the vote Go to ANC in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent South Africa South Africa (republic) Nelson Mandela is sworn in as the first president of the new democratic South Africa Go to Mandela, Nelson (Rolihlahia) (1918– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) Hastings Banda, president since independence in 1964, is defeated in Malawi's first multiparty elections Go to Banda, Hastings Kamuzu (1902) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent South Africa Mogadishu, the capital, is divided between two factions in Somalia's civil war Go to Somalia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War East Africa With apartheid ended, South Africa rejoins the Commonwealth of Nations Go to South Africa in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics South Africa South Africa (republic) After the genocide in Rwanda, the Rwandan Patriotic Front captures Kigali and replaces the Hutu government Go to Rwanda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics East Africa The fossilized skeleton of an Ardipithecus female, nicknamed Ardi and 4.4 million years old, is found in the Awash valley region of Ethiopia Go to Ardi in New Oxford American Dictionary (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Science Life sciences East Africa Ethiopia More than a million Hutus, escaping from the backlash after the genocide in Rwanda, are in refugee camps in Zaire Go to Rwandan Genocide in The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa
1995	Asian and African UN troops withdraw from Somalia, though the country is still in a state of violent civil war Go to Somalia in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics War East Africa Ethiopians have their first experience of democracy in a free presidential election, won by Meles Zenawi Go to Zenawi, Meles (1995) in Encyclopedia of Africa (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Democracy and dissent East Africa Ethiopia Ken Saro-Wiwa, playwright and pro-democracy campaigner in Nigeria, is among a group hanged by the ruling junta Go to Saro-Wiwa, Ken(ule) Beeson (1941–95) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics West Africa Germany Mozambique joins the Commonwealth, as the first member not to have emerged from the British empire Go to Mozambique in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics South Africa
1996	Expelled from Sudan, Osama bin Laden moves to Afghanistan where he builds training camps for al-Qaeda Go to Bin Laden, Osama (1957–2011) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics War Central Africa East Africa Asia Central Asia Afghanistan Archbishop Desmond Tutu chairs South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission Go to Tutu, Desmond Mpilo (1931– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Social and domestic South Africa South Africa (republic) Society Jerry Rawlings has a convincing electoral victory after seventeen years in power in Ghana Go to Rawlings, Jerry John (22 June 1947) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics West Africa
1997	Ghanaian diplomat Kofi Annan is appointed secretary-general of the United Nations, becoming the first black African in the post Go to Annan, Kofi (1938– ) in Who's Who in the Twentieth Century (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics West Africa Former US Secretary of State James Baker undertakes the difficult task of trying to find a compromise between the Polisario and Morocco over Western Sahara Go to Western Sahara in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century North Africa After thirty-two years as the corrupt dictator of Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko is driven out by Laurent Kabila Go to Mobutu Sese Seko, Joseph-Désiré (b. 14 Oct. 1930) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa The civilian president of Sierra Leone, Ahmad Kabbah, is ousted in a military coup led by Johnny Koroma Go to Sierra Leone in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics West Africa The name of Zaire is changed once again, reverting to the Democratic Republic of Congo Go to Congo, Democratic Republic of in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa
1998	Nigerian forces expel Johnny Koroma from Freetown and reinstate Sierra Leone's elected civilian president, Ahmad Kabbah Go to Sierra Leone in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics West Africa Germany A UN peacekeeping force takes responsibility for maintaining order in the Central African Republic Go to Central African Republic in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Central Africa East Africa Civil war breaks out again in the Congo, after a Tutsi uprising against Laurent Kabila's government Go to Congo, Republic of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War Central Africa East Africa Bitter and devastating warfare breaks out again between Eritrea and Ethiopia as the result of a border dispute Go to Eritrea in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War East Africa Ethiopia Neighbouring African nations, with an interest in Congo's mineral wealth, take part on both sides in a developing civil war Go to Congo, Republic of in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War Central Africa East Africa Violent gangs, calling themselves the Mugabe War Veterans Association, start to 'liberate' more than 100,000 sq km of white-owned farmland in Zimbabwe Go to Mugabe, Robert Gabriel (21 Feb. 1924) in A Dictionary of Political Biography (1 rev ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Zimbabwe South Africa 224 deaths in simultaneous attacks on US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania are linked to al-Qaeda Go to al-Qaeda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination East Africa US cruise missiles attack al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan and a suspected chemical factory in Khartoum Go to al-Qaeda in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics Terrorism and assassination War US presidents Central Africa East Africa Asia Central Asia Afghanistan Rulers and politicians North America United States Steps are taken to end Sudan's fifteen-year civil war, with an undated government promise of a referendum in the south Go to Sudan in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century Politics War East Africa
1999	Libya hands over, for trial in the Hague, two men suspected of causing the Lockerbie disaster of 1988 Go to Lockerbie Bombing in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century British Isles North Africa Europe Britain Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the new president of Algeria, reveals that as many as 100,000 people have died in seven years of civil war and massacre Go to Bouteflika, Abdelaziz (b. 2 Mar. 1937) in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History (3 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War North Africa UNITA's widespread advance in Angola's long civil war brings terror and starvation Go to Angola in World Encyclopedia (1 ed.) See this event in other timelines: 1990s 20th century War South Africa Nelson Mandela retires from active politics and is succeeded by Thabo Mbeki as South Africa's president Go to Mbeki, Thabo (1942– ) in A Dictionary of World History (2 ed.) See this event in other timelines:

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